BENCH  WORK  IN  WOOD 


A   COURSE   OF 


STUDY   AND   PRACTICE 


FOR  THE  USE  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES, 


W.   F.  M.  GOSS, 

PROFESSOR  OF  PRACTICAL  MECHANICS,  PURDUE  UNIVERSITY, 
LAFAYETTE,  INDIANA. 


BOSTON: 

PUBLISHED   BY   GINN   &   COMPANY. 
1888. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1887,  by 

W.   F.   M.    GOSS, 
in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


TYPOGRAPHY  BY  J.  S.  GUSHING  &  Co.,  BOSTON. 


PRESSWORK  BY  GINN  &  Co.,  BOSTON. 


rr 


PREF 


STATE  NORMAL  SCH90L 
MANUAL  A«T«  A*D  HUME  6C»NiMICS 


LCE: 


SANTA  BAH&AIIA,  CALIFORNIA 


avoid  confusion,  the  subject  herein  treated  is  con- 
sidered  in  three  divisions.  Part  I.  contains  the  essen- 
tial facts  concerning  common  bench  tools  for  wood ;  it 
describes  their  action,  explains  their  adjustments,  and  shows 
how  they  may  be  kept  in  order.  Part  II.  presents  a  course 
of  practice  by  which  ability  to  use  the  tools  may  be  ac- 
quired ;  and  Part  III.  discusses  such  forms  and  adaptations 
of  joints  as  will  meet  the  requirements  of  ordinary  construc- 
tion. It  is  not  expected  that  the  student  will  complete  Part 

I.  before  entering  upon  Part  II.,  or  that  he  will  finish   Part 

II.  before  commencing  Part  III.     He  will  find  greater  profit 
in  using  them  together.     For  example,  a  shop  exercise  involv- 
ing the  chisel  (Part  II.)  should  be  accompanied  or  preceded 
by  a  study  of  the  chisel  (Part  I.)  ;   again,  the  various  forms 
of  mortise  and  tenon  joints  (Part  III.)  will  be  better  under- 
stood and  more  easily  remembered,  if  considered  during  the 
time  when  types  of  such  joints  are  under  construction  in  the 
shops  (Part  II.).     In  the  writer's  experience  with  classes  of 

^•students,  one  hour  has  been  given  to  class-room  work  for  every 
^ '  five  hours  given  to  shop  work.     By  this  apportionment,  Parts 

I.  and  III.  can  be  mastered  in  the  class-room  while  Part  II. 

is  in  progress  in  the  shops. 

The   equipment   necessary  for  carrying  out  the  course   of 


IV 


PREFACE. 


practice  given  in  Part  II.  is  much  less  expensive  than  may  at 
first  appear.  Besides  a  bench,  a  pair  of  trestles,  and  a  bench- 
hook,  the  following-named  tools  are  needed  :  — 


2-ft.  Rule. 

Fram  ing-  Square . 

7-inch  Try-Square. 

8-inch  Bevel. 

8-inch  Marking-Gauges. 

Chalk-Line,  with  Chalk. 

Lead-Pencil. 

Scriber. 

Firmer-Chisels,  i  each,  \",  \", 

I",  i",  |»,  f",  i",  and  i£". 
Gouges,  i  each,  f",  j»,  |",  and 

i". 
i  22-inch    Cross-cutting- Saw,   8 

teeth. 

pair  8-inch  Dividers. 

pair  jj-mch  Matching-Planes. 

T\-inch  Beading-Plane. 

\-inch  Beading-Plane. 

Plow. 


i   24-inch  Ripping-Saw,  6  teeth. 

i    lo-inch  Back-Saw. 

i  8-inch  Drawing-Knife. 

i   Fore-Plane. 

i  Jack- Plane. 

i   Smooth-Plane. 

i  Set   Auger-Bits,  J"   to    i"  by 

i6ths. 

i  Bit-Brace, 
i   Brad-Awl, 
i  Carpenter's  Hammer, 
i  Mallet, 
i  Nail-Set, 
i  Oilstone. 

i   Hand-Scraper. 

»-  doz.  Quill  Bits,  assorted  from  \" 

down. 

i   Miter-Box. 
i  Grindstone. 


if  provision  is  to  be  made  for  more  than  one  student,  the 
items  printed  in  small  type  need  not  be  duplicated.  One  set 
of  these  will  suffice  for  any  number  less  than  thirty. 

The  writer  is  indebted  to  Mr.  M.  Golden,  of  the  School 
of  Mechanics  and  Engineering,  Purdue  University,  for  the  exe- 
cution of  many  of  the  drawings  and  for  valuable  suggestions. 

W.  F.  M.  G. 
PURDUE  UNIVERSITY, 
Lafayette,  Ind. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION.  —  INTERPRETATION    OF 
MECHANICAL   DRAWINGS. 

PAGES 

I .  Mechanical  Drawings  Defined.  —  2.  Plans.  —  3.  Elevations.  — 
4.  Method  of  showing  Parts  Obscured  from  Sight.  —  5.  Sections. 
Section  Lines.  Cross-hatching.  Incomplete  Sections.  —  6.  Bro- 
ken Drawings.  —  7.  Scale.  —  8.  Dimensions.  Dimension  Lines,  1-6 


PART    I.  — BENCH    TOOLS. 

9.    Bench.  —  10.   Bench-Stop.  —  1 1.   Vise.  —  12.   Bench-Hook.  — 

13.    Trestles   .     .     . ;. -9 

MEASURING  AND  LINING  APPLIANCES. 

14.    Early  Standards  of  Length.—  15.  English  Standard  Yard.  —  16. 
United  States  Standard  of  Length.—  17.  The  Troughton  Scale. 

—  18.  Rules.—  19.  Framing-Square.  —  20.  Board-measure  Table. 

—  21.  Brace-measure  Table.  —  22.  Try-Square.  —  23.  Bevel.  — 
24.  "Miter-Square."  —  25.  Try-and-" Miter  "  Square. —  26.  Di- 
viders. —  27.  Scribing  with  Dividers.  —  28.  Combining  Square 
and  Rule.  —  29.  Combining   Square   and  Bevel.  —  30.  Setting 
the  Bevel  at  an  Angle  of  60  Degrees.  —  31.  Setting  the  Bevel  at 
any  Given  Angle.  —  32.  Marking-Gauge.  —  33.  Mortise-Gauge. 

—  34.    Panel-Gauge.  —  35.    Cutting-Gauge.  —  36.    Chalk-Line. 

—  37.   Scriber.  —  38.    Pencil 9-20 


v-  CONTENTS. 

PAGES 

CHISELS  AND  CHISEL-LIKE  TOOLS. 

39.  Firmer.Chisels.-40.  Framing-Chisels. -41-  Corner-Chisels. - 
A2  Gouges  -43.  Chisel  Handles.  — 44-  Drawmg-Kmfe.  —  45- 
Action  o*  Cu,«i  Wedges. -46.  Ang.e  of  Cutting  Wedge  in 
ChM  and  Gouge. -47-  Grinding. -48.  Whettmg  ...*-. 

SAWS. 

49.  Efficiency. -50-  Form.-5i.  Set.  -  52.  Size  of  Teeth. -53- 
Ripping-Saw  and  Cross-Cutting-Saw  Defined.- 54-  Teeth  of 
Ripping-Saws.  -  55.  Teeth  of  Cross-Cutting-Saws.  -  56.  Back- 
Saw.  —  57.  Compass-Saw 2  3 

APPLIANCES  FOR  FILING  AND  SETTING  SAWS. 
58.    Files.  — 59.  Sets  for  Bending  the  Tooth.— 60.  Sets  for  Swedging 

the  Tooth.  — 61.  Clamps 36-38 

SAW  FILING  AND  SETTING. 
62   Top-Jointing.  — 63.  Setting.  —  64.  Filing.  — 65.  Side- Jointing,  39~4i 

PLANES  AND  PLANE-LIKE  TOOLS. 

66.  Description  of  Planes.  —  67.  Length  of  Stock.  —  68.  Plane-Iron. 
Angle  of  Cutting  Wedge.  —  69.  Outline  of  Cutting  Edge.  —  70. 
Use  of  Different  Bench  Planes.  —  71.  Action  of  Smooth-Plane 
and  Fore-Plane  Compared.  —  72.  The  Cap.  —  73.  Narrowness  of 
Mouth.  —  74.  Adjusting  the  Iron.—  75.  Jointing  a  Plane.  —  76. 
Iron  Planes.  — 77.  Planes  of  Wood  and  Iron  Combined.— 78. 
Circular- Planes.  —  79.  Block-Planes.  —  80.  Spokeshaves.  —  8l. 
Rabbeting- Planes.  —  82.  Matching-Planes.  —  83.  Hollows  and 
Rounds.  — 84.  Beading-Planes. —  85.  Plows.  —  86.  Combina- 
tion Planes.  — 87.  Scrapers 4l~S2 

BORING  TOOLS. 

88.  Augers.  —  89.  Auger-Bits.  —  90.  Sharpening  Augers  and  Auger- 
Bits.— 91.  Center-Bits.  —  92.  Expansive  Bits.  —  93.  Small  Bits. 
—  94.  Bit-Braces.  —  95.  Angular  Bit-Stock.  —  96.  Automatic 
Boring  Tool 53-59 


CONTENTS. 


MISCELLANEOUS  TOOLS. 

97.  Winding-Sticks.  —  98.  Hand  Screw-Driver.  —  99.  Brace  Screw- 
Driver.  —  100.  Hammer.  —  101.  Hatchet.  —  102.  Mallet.  — 
103.  Sand-Paper.  —  104.  Wooden  Miter-Box.  —  105.  Iron 
Miter-Box.  —  106.  Clamps.  —  107.  Grindstone.  —  108.  Use  of 
Water  on  a  Grindstone.  —  109.  Truing  a  Grindstone. —  no. 
Truing  Devices  for  Grindstones. —  in.  Oilstones. —  112.  Oil 
for  Oilstones.  —  113.  Form  of  Oilstones.  —  114.  Oilstone  Slips. 
—  115.  Truing  an  Oilstone 59-^9 


PART   II.  — BENCH    WORK. 

1 1 6.  Good  Lines  a  Necessity.  —  1 1 7.    Location  of  Points.  —  118. 

Jointed  Face.  —  119.  Working- Face 7i~73 

EXERCISE  No.  i.  —  MEASURING  AND  LINING. 

I2O.  Material. —  121.  Spacing:  Pencil  and  Rule. —  122.  Lining: 
Pencil,  and  Framing-Square. —  123.  Chalk-Lining. —  124.  Lin- 
ing: Pencil,  and  Try-Square.  —  125.  Lining:  Pencil  and  Bevel. 
—  126.  "Gauging"  Lines:  Pencil  and  Rule. —  127.  Spacing: 
Scriber  and  Rule.  — 128.  Lining:  Scriber,  and  Try-Square. 
129.  Lining:  Scriber  and  Bevel.  —  130.  Gauge-Lining.  —  131. 
Lining  for  Exercise  No.  3 73~79 

EXERCISE  No.  2.  —  CHISELING  AND  GOUGING. 

132.  Chiseling  by  Hand.  —  133.  Chiseling  by  Use  of  Mallet.  —  134. 

Gouging 80-83 

EXERCISE  No.  3.  —  SAWING. 

135.  Handling  the  Saw. —  136.  Guiding  the  Saw. —  137.  Correct- 
ing the  Angle  of  the  Cut. —  138.  Rip-Sawing.  —  139.  Cross- 
cutting  83-86 

EXERCISE  No.  4.  —  PLANING. 

140.  Handling  the  Plane.  —  141.  Why  a  Plane  Clogs.  —  142.  Joint- 
ing. —  143.  Planing  to  a  Square.  —  144.  Method  of  Performing 


vjii  CONTENTS. 

PAGES 

Similar  Operations.  —  145.    Smooth   Surfaces.  —  146.    Sand- 
Papering    86-S< 

EXERCISE   No.  5.  — Box. 

147.  Jointing  to  Width.  —  148.  Sawing  to  Length.  —  149.  Nailing. 
—  150.  Hammer  Marks. —  151.  Setting  Nails. —  152.  With- 
drawing Nails. —  153.  Fastening  the  Box  Bottom.  Finishing 
the  Box.  —  154.  Planing  End  Grain 91-96 

EXERCISE  No.  6.  —  BENCH-HOOK. 
155.  Lining  and  Sawing. —  156.  Using  the  Auger-Bit      ....     96-98 

EXERCISE  No.  7.  —  HALVED  SPLICE. 

157.  Lining.  — 158.  Value  of  Working- Face  Illustrated.— 159.  Cut- 
ting the  Joint.  —  160.  Sawing  a  Fit.  —  161.  Toeing  Nails  .  99-102 

EXERCISE  No.  8.  —  SPLAYED  SPLICE. 
162.  Lining.  —  163.  Cutting  and  Finishing  the  Joint  ....     103,  104 

EXERCISE  No.  9  —  SIMPLE  MORTISE-AND-TENON  JOINT. 

164.  Lining. —  165.  Cutting  the  Mortise. —  166.  Cutting  the  Tenon. 

167.  Making  a  Pin.— 1 68.  Dra whoring 104-110 

EXERCISE  No.  10.  —  KEYED  MORTISE-AND-TENON  JOINT. 
169.  Lining  and  Cutting. —  170.  Key    .     .     .     .- no,  in 

EXERCISE  No.  n.  — PLAIN  DOVETAIL. 

171.  Lining  and  Cutting.  —  1 72.  Gluing. —  173.  Short  Method  of 

Lining  and  Cutting  the  Joint 112,113 

EXERCISE  No.  12.  — LAP  DOVETAIL. 
174.  Lining  and  Cutting 114,115 


CONTENTS.  IX 

PAGES 

EXERCISE  No.  13. —  BLIND  DOVETAIL. 
175.  Lining  and  Cutting.  —  176.  A  Modified  Form  of  the  Joint  .  115-117 

EXERCISE  No.  14.  —  FRAME  AND  PANEL. 

177.  Panel  Door  Described.  —  178.  Making  the  Joint  between  Stile 
and  Rail.  —  179.  Cutting  Chamfers.  —  180.  Keying  the  Joint. 
—  181.  Finishing  the  Panel.  Fastening  Panel  to  Frame.  — 
182.  Inserting  Screws. —  183.  Using  the  Brad-Awl  .  .  .  117-121 

EXERCISE  No.  15. —  FRAME  AND  PANEL 

184.  Making  Joint  between  Stile  and  Rail.  —  185.  Plowing.  —  186. 

Beading. —  187.  Forming  the  Panel 121-124 


PART    III.  —  ELEMENTS    OF    WOOD    CON- 
STRUCTION. 

TIMBER. 

188.  Timber  Defined. —  189.  Felling.  —  190.  Seasoning.  —  191. 
Shrinkage.  —  192.  Swelling.  —  193.  Warping. —  194.  Effect  of 
Shrinkage  on  Cross-section.  —  195.  Effect  of  Shrinkage  on 
Length  124-129 

CARPENTRY. 

196.  Work  of  Carpenter  and  Joiner  Compared.  —  197.  Compres- 
sional,  Tensional,  and  Cross-Strain  Defined.  —  198.  Effect  of 
Cross-Strain.  Neutral  Axis.  Relation  between  the  Depth  of  a 
Timber  nnri  its  Resistance  to  Cross-Strain.  —  109.  Rankine's 
Principles  concerning  Joints  and  Fastenings  ....  130-132 


X  CONTENTS. 

PAGES 

JOINTS  CONNECTING  TIMBERS  IN  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THEIR  LENGTH. 

200.  Lapped  Joint.  —  201.  Fished  Joint.  —  202.  Scarfed  Joints.  — 
203.  Scarfed  Joint  for  Resisting  Compression.  —  204.  Scarfed 
Joint  for  Resisting  Tension.  —  205.  Scarfed  Joint  for  Resisting 
Cross-Strain.  —  206.  Scarfed  Joint  for  Resisting  Tension  and 
Compression.  —  207.  Scarfed  Joint  for  Resisting  Tension  and 
Cross-Strain '33-135 


JOINTS  CONNECTING  TIMBERS  AT  RIGHT  ANGLES. 

208.  Halving.  —  209.  Notching.  —  210.  Cogging.  —  211.  Mortise- 
and-Tenon  Joints.  —  212.  Mortise  and  Tenon  Joining  a  Vertical 
to  a  Horizontal  Timber.  —  213.  Mortise  and  Tenon  Joining 
a  Horizontal  to  a  Vertical  Timber.  —  214.  Mortise  and  Tenon 
Joining  One  Horizontal  Timber  to  Another.  Tusk  Tenon  136-139 


MISCELLANEOUS  JOINTS. 

215.  Oblique  Mortise  and  Tenon. —  216.    Bridle- Joint.  —  217.   Tie- 
Joint. —  218.   Chase-Mortise 139-141 


JOINERY. 

219.  Joinery  Described 141,  142 

BEADS  AND  MOLDINGS. 

220.  Beads.  — 221.    Use  of  Beads.  —  222.     Chamfer.  —  223.    Stop 
Chamfer.  —  224.  Moldings  Described.  —  225.    Round  Nose.  — 
226.    Some  Typical  Forms  of  Moldings.     Fillet.  —  227.    Joints 

in  Joinery  Defined 142-145 

HEADING-JOINTS,  OR  JOINTS   UNITING   PIECES   IN  THE  DIRECTION  OF 
THEIR  LENGTH. 

228.    Square  Heading-Joint.     Splayed  Heading-Joint 145 


CONTENTS.  XI 

PAGES 

JOINTS  UNITING  PIECES  IN  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THEIR  WIDTH. 

229.  Their  Office.  —  230.  Butt-joint.  Filleted  Joint.  Rabbeted 
Joint.  Matched  Joint.  —  231.  Glued  Butt-joint.  —  232.  Cleat- 
ing.  —  233.  Side  Cleats.  —  234.  End  Cleats.  —  235.  Relieving 
Cleats  from  Strain  ..............  145-148 

JOINTS  UNITING  PIECES  AT  RIGHT  ANGLES. 

236.  Butt-joint.  —  237.  Miter-Joint.  —  238.  Strengthening  of  Miter- 
Joints.  —  239.  Dovetail-Joints.  —  240.  Proportions  of  Mortise- 
and-Tenon  Joints.  —  241.  Single  and  Double  Tenons.—  242. 
Haunching.  —  243.  Four  Tenons.  —  244.  Mortises  and  Tenons 
at  an  Angle  in  the  Work.  —  245.  Modifications  of  Mortise-and- 
Tenon  Joints  ...............  148-152 

PANELING. 

246.  Panel.  —  247.     Frame.  —  248.     Joints    between    Panel    and 

Frame     ..................     152-155 


FASTENINGS. 

249.  Pins.  —  250.  Wedges.  —  251.  Blind-Wedging.  —  252.  Keys. 
—  253.  Dowels.  —  254.  Nails.  —  255.  Size  of  Nails.  —  256. 
Brads.  —  257.  Tacks.  —  258.  Screws.  —  259.  Glue  .  .  .  15 


INTRODUCTION. 


EMS. 


INTERPRETATION    OF   MECHANICAL  DRAWINGS. 

i.  Most  of  the  illustrations  presented  with  the  following 
chapters  are  in  the  form  of  Mechanical  Drawings.  To  the 
novice,  these  may  appear  confusing ;  but  careful  attention  to 
some  of  the  principles  underlying  their  con- 
struction  will  enable  him  readily  to  interpret 
their  meaning. 

A  mechanical  drawing,  as  distinguished  from 
a  perspective  drawing,  or  picture,  instead  of 
giving  all  the  characteristics  of  an  object  at  a 
glance,  presents  them  in  detail,  giving  in  one 
view  one  set  of  elements,  in  another  view  another  set  of 
elements,  and  so  on,  until  the  form  of  the  ob- 
ject is  accurately  defined. 

For  example,  Fig.  i  is  a  perspective  view 
of  an  object  which  is  represented  mechanically 
by  Fig.  2.  By  Fig.  i  it  will  at  once  be  seen 
that  the  object  represented  is  a  cylinder.  In 
Fig.  2  there  is  first  presented  a  plan,  showing 
that  the  object  is  cylindrical ;  and,  secondly, 
an  elevation,  showing  the  height  of  the  cylinder. 
From  the  combination  of  these  two  views,  the 
solid  may  be  as  easily  imagined  as  from  Fig.  i , 
and  the  knowledge  obtained  of  it  is  much  more 
definite. 

A  perspective  view  of  an  object  is  that  which         ELEVATION. 
is  had  by  looking  from  some  one  point,  as  A,  Fig.  3,  while  a 
view  represented  by  a  mechanical  drawing  supposes  the  ob- 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


server  to  be  looking  from  an  infinite  number  of  points,  and 
always  in  parallel  lines,  as  indicated  by  A,  Fig.  4. 

2.  A  Plan  of  any  object 
represents  it  as  it  would 
appear  if,  standing  on  its 
natural  base,  it  were  looked 
down  upon  vertically,  as 
indicated  by  the  arrows  A, 
Fig.  5.  If  the  object,  as  a  rectangular  block,  has  no  fixed 
base,  any  one  of  its  faces  may  be  taken  as  such. 


3.   An  Elevation  of  any  object  represents  it  as  it  would 
appear  if,  standing  on  its  natural  base,  it  were  looked  upon  in  a 
p,.^  Q       horizontal  direction,  as  indicated  by 
arrows  B,  Fig.  5. 

The  elevation  is  always  at  right 
angles  to  the  plan.  There  may  be 
several  elevations  of  the  same  object, 
each  differing  from  the  others  as  the 
point  of  observation  changes.  For 
example,  the  plan  and  elevation  of  the  object  rep- 
resented by  Fig.  6,  are  usually  made  as  shown  by 
Fig.  7,  but  they  may  be  made  as  shown  by  Fig.  8  or 
Fig.  9. 


ELEVATION. 

FACE  B. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Fig.  8 


Fig.  9 


These  angular  views,  indeed,  cannot  be  avoided  when  the  form 
they  represent  is  so  complicated  that  its  faces  are  neither  par- 
allel, nor  at  right  angles  to  each 
other.  Fig.  10  is  a  perspective 
view  of  an  object  which  is  repre- 
sented mechanically  by  Fig.  u. 
It  is  evident  that  if  one  face  of  A 
is  shown  in  the  elevation,  two 
faces  of  B  will  appear ;  if  one 
face  of  B  is  shown,  two  of  A  will 
appear. 

In  the  representation  of  simple 
objects,  the  plan  is  in  some  cases 
omitted,  and  two  elevations  em- 
ployed. These  may  be  designated  as  side  elevation  and  end 
elevation,  which  terms  signify  an  elevation  of  a  side  and  an 
elevation  of  an  end.  For 
example,  if  we  consider  the 
surface  A  the  base  of  Fig.  6, 
a  side  elevation  would  be 
equivalent  to  the  elevation 
Fig.  7,  and  the  end  elevation 
would  become  equivalent  to 
the  plan  of  the  same  figure. 

4.  Method  of  showing  Parts  obscured  from 
Sight.  —  The  outline  of  details,  which  in  any 
view  of  an  object  are  hidden,  is  frequently 
shown  by  dotted  lines.  Thus,  in  Fig.  12,  the 
general  outline  of  the  plan  and  elevation  shows  a  rectangular 
block ;  if  the  circle  in  the  plan  is  associated  with  the  dotted 
lines  in  the  elevation,  it  is  not  difficult  to  imagine  a  round  hole 
extending  through  the  center  of  the  block.  If  the  hole  pene- 
trates to  only  half  the  depth  of  the  block,  dotted  lines  will  be 
placed  as  shown  by  Fig.  13;  if  the  hole  is  larger  at  the  top 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


than  at  the  bottom,  the  drawing  will  appear  as  shown  by  Fig.  14 ; 
if  smaller  at  the  top,  as  shown  by  Fig.  15.     In  Fig.  16  dotted 


Fig- 


Fig.  13 


Kig.  14 


Kig.  15 


1 

i 

1 

J 

/AT/ON. 

L_J 

Kig.  10 


lines  indicate  the  diameter  of  a  bolt  holding  the  two  pieces  A 
and  B  together. 

5.   Sections.  —  In  complicated  drawings,  the  use  of  dotted 
lines  to  indicate  hidden  parts  is  more  confusing  than  helpful. 
In  such  cases  it  is  customary  to  imagine  the 
object  cut,  as  if  it  were  sawed  asunder,  and 
"A    i       K         '  ^    tne  SUI^ace  tnus  produced  exposed.     Such 
^J       ^        a  surface  is  called  a  "  section." 

Complete  sections  show  not  only  the  sur- 
face produced  by  the  cut,  but  the  outline  of  other  portions  of 
the  object  which  may  be  seen  beyond.  See  lines  #,  a,  Fig.  17. 

Thus,  section  AB,  Fig.  17,  is  that  which 
would  appear  if  the  ring  were  to  be  cut  on 
the  line  AB  (Plan,  Fig.  17),  and  the  cut 
surface  made  to  appear  in  elevation. 

Section  lines  on  a  drawing  show  the  loca- 
tion of  sections.  They  are  usually  made  in 
color  (red  or  blue),  or  in  dotted  black,  with 
a  colored  line  on  each  side.  Each  section 
is  designated  by  the  letters  of  its  section  line, 


FUg. 17 


Sec.  A  B, 


INTRODUCTION. 


Fig.  10 


Cross-hatching  is  a  term  applied  to  the  uniformly  spaced 
parallel  lines  which  are  employed  to  indicate  the  cut  surface 
of  a  section.  See  Fig.  18. 

Different  pieces  of  material  appearing  in  the 
same  section  are  cross-hatched  at  different 
angles,  as  in  Fig.  19,  which  represents  a  cross- 
section  of  a  lead-pencil ;  and  different  kinds  of 
material  are  frequently  indicated  by  cross-hatch- 
ing in  different  colors. 

Incomplete  sections  show  only  the  cut  surface,  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  other  portions  of  the  object.  It  is 
common  to  place  such  sections  on  the  section  lines, 
and  omit  the  letters.  See  Fig.  20. 

A  single  view  of  a  symmetrical  object  may  be  made  partly 
in  section,  and  partly  in  elevation,  as  in  the  drawing  of  the 
goblet,  Fig.  21. 

6.  Broken   Drawings.  —  To    economize 
space  in  representations  of  simple  objects,  a 

portion  of  the  drawing 
is  sometimes  omitted. 
In  such  cases,  that  which 
is  given  indicates  the 
character  of  the  omitted 
portion,  and  the  dimen- 
sion figures  show  its  ex- 
tent. An  example  is 
given  in  Fig.  22. 

7.  Scale.  —  Drawings  are  made  either  "full-sized"  or  "to 
scale."     A  full-sized  drawing  is  one  in  which  every  dimension 
agrees  exactly  with  the  similar  dimension  of  the  object  it  repre- 
sents.    A  drawing  to  scale  is  one  in  which  every  dimension 
bears  the  same  fractional  relation  to  the  similar  dimension  of 
the  object  it  represents.     When  a  drawing  is  ^th  the  size  of 


Fig.  21 


Fig.  SO 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


the  object,  it  is  said  to  be  on  a  scale  of  \  inch  to  the  foot,  or, 
as  frequently  written,  |  in,  =  i  ft. ;  if  £th  the  size,  as  2  in.  =  i  tt., 
and  so  on.  The  scale  6  in.  =  i  ft.  is  often  expressed  as  "  half 


8.    Dimensions.  — The  various  dimensions  of  an  object  repre- 
sented are  shown  on  the  drawing  by  appropriate  figures,  which 
33         express  feet  when  followed  by  ',  and  inches 
when  followed  by  ".     Thus  2'  should  be  read 
as  two  feet,  and  2"  as  two  inches.     12'  7f"  is 
HALF  SIZE.          tne  same  as  twelve  feet  and  seven  and  three- 
quarters  inches. 

The  figures  always  show  the  dimensions  of  the  thing  repre- 
sented ;  they  do  not  agree  with  the  dimensions  of  the  drawing 
except  when  the  latter  is  full-sized.  See  dimension  figures  in 
Fig.  23.  ^__ __ 

r 

Fig.  23 


Dimension  lines. — Dimension  figures  are  always  placed  on,  or 
near,  lines  along  which  they  apply.  In  drawings  these  lines  are 
usually  in  color  (red),  but  may  be  dotted  black,  as  in  Fig.  23. 
When  convenient,  they  are  placed  within  the  outline  of  the 
drawing ;  but  if  the  drawing  is  small  or  crowded,  they  are  placed 
at  one  side,  and  are  connected  with  the  parts  they  limit  by  per- 
pendicular, colored  or  dotted  lines.  Two  arrow-heads,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  dimension  figure,  locate  the  points  between 
which  it  applies.  Several  dimensions  may  be  given  on  the  same 
line,  each  being  limited  by  its  own  arrow-heads. 


PART  I. 


BENCH    TOOLS. 

g.  Bench.  — A  simple  form  of  bench  is  shown  by  Fig.  24. 
Its  length  A  may  vary  from  6'  upwards,  according  to  the  length 
of  work  to  be  done.  Its  height  B  should  also  be  regulated  by 
the  character  of  the  work  —  high  for  light  work,  and  low  for 
heavy  —  as  well  as  by  the  height  of  the  person  who  is  to  use  it. 
Carpenters'  benches  are  usually  about  33"  high,  while  those  of 
cabinet  and  pattern  makers  are  from  2"  to  4"  higher. 


— -  c 

END  ELEVATION. 


SIDE    ELEVATION. 


The  surface  of  the  bench,  particularly  of  the  thick  plank  that 
forms  the  outer  edge  of  it,  should  be  perfectly  flat  —  a  true 
plane.  When  in  use,  care  must  be  taken  to  protect  it  from 
injury.  It  should  never  be  scarred  by  the  chisel  or  cut  by  the 
saw.  If  oiled  and  shellaced,  it  is  likely  to  be  better  kept. 

10.  The  Bench-Stop  a  is  intended  to  hold  the  work  while 
it  is  being  planed.  It  may  be  simply  a  piece  of  wood  about 
2r'x  2",  projecting  through  a  mortise  in  the  top  of  the  bench ; 


g  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

but  it  is  far  better  to  have  some  form  of  iron  fitting,  many  of 
which  are  supplied  by  the  trade.  The  char- 
acteristics of  all  of  them  are  well  illustrated 
by  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  25.  The  frame 
A  is  let  into  the  bench  even  with  its  sur- 
face. The  hook  C  is  held  in  position  at 
any  height  above  the  bench  by  the  action 
of  the  screw  B.  C  may  be  fastened  even 
with  the  surface  of  the  bench,  or  removed 
entirely. 

ii.  The  Vise  d,  Fig.  24,  is  of  a  form  that,  for  general  pur- 
poses, has  long  been  in  use.  To  hold  the  work  well,  the  jaw  d 
should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  parallel  to  the  face  g,  against 
which  it  acts.  If  it  is  not  parallel,  the  space  between  should 
be  less  at  the  top  than  at  the  bot- 
tom —  an  arrangement  which  in- 
sures a  much  better  grip  upon  the 
work  than  the  opposite  conditions. 
Adjustments  for  parallelism  are 
made  by  changing  the  pin  c  from 
one  hole  to  another.  There  are 
various  mechanical  appliances  for 
preserving  automatically  the  paral- 
lelism of  this  vise,  but  none  are  in  common  use.  Iron  vises  can 
be  had  which  are  adapted  to  the  same  uses  as  the  one  just 
described;  they  maintain  their  parallelism,  and  are  easier  and 
more  perfect  in  action. 

An  iron  bench  vise,  such  as  is  shown  by  Fig.  26,  is  extremely 
useful  for  small  work,  and,  if  expense  is  not  to  be  considered, 
should  supplement  the  vise  d,  in  which  case  it  may  be  located 
on  the  bench  at  H. 

The  holes,  e,  in  the  bench  are  for  the  reception  of  a  plug, 
which  may  be  used  to  support  one  end  of  a  long  piece  of  work 
while  the  other  end  is  held  by  the  vise. 


BENCH    TOOLS.  9 

12.  A  Bench-Hook,   Fig.    178,   applied  to   the   bench  as 
shown  by  Fig.    167,   provides   a   stop  to  prevent  work  from 
sliding  across  the  bench.     The  flat  faces  which  rest  on  the 
bench  and  receive  the  work,  should  be  true  planes  and  par- 
allel.     A  length  of  from    14"  to    16"  is   convenient,  though 
bench-workers  frequently  have  several  of  different  lengths. 

13.  Trestles,  or  "horses,"  are  used  in  various  ways  to  sup- 
port  material,  and  also  Fi<r  27 

to  take  the  place  of  the  '— -  —  *' 

bench  when  large  pieces 
of  material  are  to  be 
operated  upon.  A  con- 
venient form  is  shown 
by  Fig.  27. 

MEASURING  AND  LINING  APPLIANCES. 

14.  Early  Standards  of  Length. — To  meet   the   earliest 
need  of  units  of  measure,  it  was  natural  to  adopt  the  means 
nearest  at  hand,  and  common  consent,  no  doubt,  brought  into 
use  the  pace,  the  forearm,  or  cubit,  the  foot,  the  hand,  the  nail, 
etc.     These  were  certainly  convenient  enough,  for  wherever  he 
might  go,  every  individual  carried  his  units  of  measure  with  him. 
Variations  in  their  length,  however,  were  inevitable,  and  many 
attempts  were  made  to  reduce  them  to  a  standard.     An  old 
English   statute,   the   substance   of  which   has   descended   to 
American   arithmetics   of  modern   date,    enacts    "  that   three 
barleycorns,  round  and  dry,  make  an  inch,  twelve  inches  make 
a  foot,  three  feet  a  yard,  etc. ;   and  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt 
that  this  mode  of  obtaining  a  standard  was  actually  resorted  to. 
But  setting  aside  the  objection  due  to  the  varying  size  of  the 
individual  grains,  —  unless  the  average  of  a  large  number  be 
taken,  —  it  is  so  difficult  to  know  how  much  of  the  sharp  end 
of  a  grain  of  barley  must  be  removed  to  make  it  '  round,'  that 


IO  BENCH    WORK    IN   WOOD. 

the  definition  is  not  of  much  value.  Nevertheless,  in  spite 
of  numerous  attempts  at  legislation  on  the  subject,  this,  down 
to  the  year  1824,  was  the  only  process  by  which  the  standard 
yard  of  this  country  [England]  could,  if  lost,  be  legally  re- 
covered." 1 

Previous  to  the  institution  of  a  national  standard  of  length 
in  Great  Britain,  influential  men  and  prominent  societies  pro- 
vided themselves  with  so-called  standards,  which  were  accepted 
and  used  in  different  localities.  By  comparison  with  many  of 
these,  the  present  standard  of  length  was  made,  and  its  length 
defined  by  law  as  the  British  standard  yard.  From  this,  about 
fifty  copies  have  been  made.  Two  of  these  copies  were  in  1855 
sent  to  the  United  States,  and  have  since  been  in  the  keeping 
of  the  Coast  Survey.  They  are  described  as  follows  :  — 

15.  "  Each  standard  of  length  is  a  solid  bar  38  inches  long 
and  i  inch  square,  in  transverse  section.     One  inch  from  each 
extremity  a  cylindrical  well,  one-half  inch  in  diameter,  is  sunk 
one-half  inch  below  the  surface.     At  the  bottom  of  the  wells, 
in  each  bar,  is  a  gold  pin  about  o.i  inch  in  diameter,  upon 
which  are  drawn  three  transversal  and  two  longitudinal  lines. 
The  wells  are  protected  by  metal  caps.     The  length  of  one 
English  yard  at  a  specified  temperature  is  defined  by  the  dis- 
tance from  the  middle  transversal  line  in  one  well  to  the  middle 
transversal  line  in  the  other,  using  the  parts  of  those  lines  which 
are  midway  between  the  longitudinal  lines." 2 

16.  The  United  States  Standard  of  Length.  —  "  The  stand- 
ard yard  of  Great  Britain  was  lawful  in  the  colonies  before 
1776.    By  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  the  Congress 
is  charged  with  fixing  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures, 
but  no  such  enactment  has  ever  been  made  by  Congress,  and 

1  Shelley's  "  Workshop  Appliances." 

2  Report  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey,  1877,  Appendix  No.  12. 


BENCH    TOOLS.         -  1 1 

therefore  that  yard  which  was  standard  in  England  previous  to 
1776  remains  the  standard  yard  of  the  United  States  to  this 
day."  1 

17.  "The  Troughton  Scale  is  a  bronze  bar  with  an  inlaid 
silver  scale,  made  for  the  survey  of  the  coast  of  the  United 
States  by  Troughton,  of  London.     The  bar  is  nearly  86  inches 
long,  2^-  inches  wide,  and  one- half  inch  thick.     A  thin  strip  of 
silver,  a  little  more  than  o.i  inch  wide,  is  inlaid  with  its  surface 
flush  with  the  brass,  midway  the  width  of  the  bar.     It  extends 
the  whole  length  of  the  bar,  save  where  it  is  interrupted  by  two 
perforations,  one  near  each  end.     Two  parallel  lines  about  o.i 
inch  apart  are  ruled  longitudinally  on  the  silver.     The  space 
between  them  is  divided  transversely  into  tenths  of  inches. 

"The  zero  mark  of  the  graduations  is  about  3.2  inches  from 
one  end  of  the  bar.  Immediately  over  it  is  engraved  an  eagle, 
surmounted  by  the  motto,  E  Pluribus  Unum,  and  thirteen 
stars.  Below  the  38  to  42-inch  divisions  is  engraved  '  Troughton, 
London,  1814.'  The  bar  is  also  perforated  by  a  hole  above 
the  scale  and  near  the  4O-inch  division,  and  by  one  below  it, 
between  the  words  '  Troughton '  and  '  London.'  .  .  . 

"The  yard  of  36  inches,  comprised  between  the  27th  and 
63d  inch  of  the  Troughton  scale,  which  was  found  by  Hassler's 
comparison  to'  be  equal  to  the  average  36  inches  of  the  scale,  is 
the  actual  standard  yard  of  the  United  States,  having  been 
adopted  by  the  Treasury  Department  as  such  in  1832,  on  the 
recommendation  of  Mr.  Hassler.2"1 

18.  Rules  are  measuring  strips,  and  are 
usually  made  of  boxwood.     Their  size  is 
expressed  by  their  length  in  inches  or  feet, 
as  a  "  6-inch  rule,"  a  "  2-foot  rule." 

For  convenience,  they  are  made  to  fold, 

1  Report  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey,  1877,  Appendix  No.  12. 

2  Hassler  was  the  first  superintendent  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey. 


12  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

and  one  is  said  to  be  "  two-fold  "  when  made  of  two  pieces, 
"  four-fold  "  when  made  of  four,  and  "six-fold  "  when  made  of 
six  pieces.  Fig.  28  shows  a  four-fold  rule. 

To  preserve  the  rule  from  wear,  the  better  class  are  "bound  " 
by  a  strip  of  brass  which  covers  each  edge  ;  others  are  "half- 
bound,"  hav- 


„ '  A  !  iV  >  '*  '  '*  '  W  '  Vo  ' '  Id f '  Ig  ' '  I7  ^I6  i  '-Id  I '  liM-Ma     (2  "  IF: 

in*  only one  to::^^ 

edge  covered ; 

and  still  others  EIS.  so 

are  "unbound,"  having  no  edge  protection. 

Carpenters'  rules  are  usually  graduated  to  eighths 
of  inches  on  one  side,  and  to  sixteenths  on  the  other. 
Besides  the  regular  graduations,  other  numbers  are 
frequently  represented  ;  but  their  purpose  is  so  varied 
that  their  interpretation  cannot  be  given  here. 


19.  The  Framing-Square,  Fig.  29,  as  its  name 
implies,  is  intended  primarily  for  use  in  framing,  and 
would  seem  to  belong  to  the  builder  rather  than  to 
the  bench-worker ;  but  its  range  of  usefulness  makes 
it  valuable  to  any  worker  in  wood. 

All  but  the  very  cheapest  are  of  steel,  and  many  are 
nickel-plated.  The  nickel  prevents  rust,  and  gives 
clearness  to  the  lines  and  figures.  The  figures  of  the 
graduations  along  the  several  edges,  begin  at  the  angle 
and  extend  to  the  ends  of  the  legs.  In  addition  to 
these,  there  is  on  one  side  a  line  of  figures  beginning 
at  the  end  of  the  long  leg  and  extending  to  the  angle. 
On  the  reverse  side,  represented  by  Fig.  29,  there  is 
on  the  long  leg  a  board-measure  table,  and  on  the 
short  leg  a  brace-measure  table. 

20.  The  Board-measure  Table.  —  Lumber  is .  sold  by  the 
square  foot,  and  the  value  of  the  table  lies  in  its  giving  the  area 
of  a  board,  or  of  any  surface,  in  square  feet,  when  its  length  in 
feet  and  its  breadth  in  inches  are  known. 


BENCH    TOOLS.  13 

The  figures  that  belong  to  the  outside  graduations,  i,  2,  3, 
and  so  on  up  to  24,  are  employed  to  represent  the  width  of  the 
board  to  be  measured,  and  all  the  lengths  included  in  the  table 
are  given  in  a  column  under  the  figure  1 2  belonging  to  the  out- 
side graduations.  On  this  square,  Fig.  29,  they  are  14,  10, 
and  8.  To  find  the  surface  of  any  board,  first  look  in  the 
column  under  12  for  a  number  representing  its  length,  and 
having  found  it,  run  the  finger  along  in  the  same  line  until  it 
comes  under  that  figure  of  the  outside  graduations  that  corre- 
sponds to  the  board's  width.  The  figure  nearest  the  finger  in 
this  line  represents  the  area  of  the  board  in  feet. 

Example  i .  —  How  many  square  feet  are  there  in  a  board 
10'  long  and  7"  wide? 

Under  12  of  the  outside  graduations,  in  Fig.  29,  the  10  is 
in  the  second  line,  and  the  figure  in  this  line  most  nearly 
under  7  of  the  outside  graduations,  is  6,  which  represents  the 
area  required,  in  feet. 

Example  2.  —  What  is  the  surface  of  a  board  whose  length 
is  8'  and  whose  width  is  21"? 

As  in  Example  i,  look  under  12  of  the  outside  graduations 
for  8  ;  in  this  line,  under  2 1  of  the  outside  graduations,  will  be 
found  the  14  which  represents  the  area  required. 

The  reason  that  the  column  under  12,  forming,  as  it  does, 
a  part  of  the  body  of  the  table,  is  taken  to  represent  the  length, 
will  be  clear  when  it  is  remembered  that  any  board  12"  wide 
will  contain  as  many  surface  feet  as  it  contains  linear  feet ;  that 
is,  a  board  12"  wide  and  14'  long  will  have  an  area  of  14  square 
feet.  The  figures  given  under  12  correspond  to  the  usual 
length  to  which  lumber  is  cut,  and  on  most  squares  they  are 
8,  10,  14,  16,  and  18;  and,  since  the  figure  representing  the 
area  differs  from  the  figure  representing  the  length  only  be- 
cause the  width  varies,  we  must  go  to  the  right  or  the  left 
of  the  column  under  12,  when  the  width  is  greater  or  less 
than  12. 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


Fig.  30 


21.  The  Brace-measure  Table  gives  the  length  of  each  side 
of  several  right-angled  triangles.     A  brace  in  carpentry  is  a 

timber  inserted  diagonally  between  two  other 
timbers  which  usually  are  at  right  angles  to 
each  other.  If  it  is  required  to  insert  a  brace 
C  between  A  and  B,  Fig.  30,  its  length  may 
be  determined  by  using  the  table  on  the 
framing-square,  which,  within  certain  limits, 
gives  the  carpenter  the  length  of  C  when  the 
lengths  A  and  B  are  known. 

Taking  the  group  of  figures  nearest  the  end  of  the  short 
leg  for  the  illustration,  suppose  A  (length  at>)=$'j"  and  B 
(length  ac)  =  57",  then  C  (length  bc}  =  80.61".  By  the  next 
group,  it  will  be  seen  that  if  A  and  B  each  equal  54"  or  54', 
C  will  equal  76.31",  or  76.31'.  The  two  figures  representing 
the  length  of  the  two  short  sides  of  the  triangle,  are  always  given 
one  above  the  other,  and  the  figure  representing  the  length  of 
the  third  side,  to  the  right  of  the  other  two. 

22.  A  Try-Square  is  shown  by  Fig.  31.     The  beam  A  in 
this  case  is  of  wood,  faced  by  a  brass  strip  C  to  protect  it  from 

Vie.  si  wear-     Tne  Wade  £>  at   right   angles 

to  the  beam,  is  of  steel.  The  gradua- 
tions on  the  blade,  together  with  its 
thinness,  make  this  square  more  con- 
venient for  short  measurements  than 
the  rule. 

Try- squares 

are  made  from  4"  to    12",  their  size 

being  expressed  by  the  length  of  the  < 

blade. 


23.  The  Bevel,  often  improperly 
called  "bevel-square,"  is  made  up  of 
parts  similar  to  those  of  the  try-square, 


1 


BENCH   TOOLS. 


Fig.  33 


as  will  be  seen  by  Fig.  32.  The  blade  is  adjustable  to  any 
angle  with  the  beam ;  the  thumb-screw  C  fastens  it  when 
set. 

The  size  of  a  bevel  is  expressed  by  the  length  of  its  beam  in 
inches. 

24.  ''Miter-Squares"  derive  their 
name  from  the  purpose  they  are  in- 
tended to  serve.    A  "miter"  in  con- 
struction is  one-half  of  a  right  angle, 
or  an  angle  of  45  degrees.     In  the 
"  miter-square  "  the  blade,  as  in  the 
try- square,   is   permanently  set,   but 
at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  33. 

The  bevel,  while  neither  so  con- 
venient nor  so  accurate,  is  often 
made  to  answer  the  purpose  of  the  "miter-square." 

25.  A   Combination  Try-and-"  Miter " 
Square  is  shown  by  Fig.  34.      This,  while 

KiS.34      R  perfect  as  a  try- 

_:r.___  }*    square,     is      trans- 

formed into  a  "mi- 
ter-square "  when 
the  face  of  the 
beam  AB  is  placed 
against  the  work- 
ing-face (119)  of  the  material. 

26.  Dividers  are  much  used  in  spacing 
and  in  laying  off  circles  and  arcs  of  circles. 

The  form  shown  by  Fig.  35  is  known  as  "arc  and  set-screw 
dividers."  The  two  points  are  held  at  any  desired  distance 
from  each  other  by  the  action  of  the  set-screw  A  upon  the 
arc  B.  In  setting,  the  final  adjustment  may  be  made  more 


i6 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


Fig.  36 


delicate  by  use  of  the  thumb-nut  C,  which,  acting  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  spring  D,  shortens  the  arc  B  or  allows  the  spring  to 
lengthen  it,  as  may  be  required. 

27.  Scribing  with  Dividers:  Example  i. — The  four  legs 
of  a  table  are  of  unequal  length,  and  prevent  it  from  standing 
even.  Scribe  the  legs  to  length. 

First,  by  means  of  blocks  or  wedges  under  the  shorter  legs, 
make  the  top  of  the  table  to  stand  parallel  to  some  plane  sur- 
face, as  a  bench  top,  or  even  the  floor  if 
it  is  in  good  condition,  either  of  which 
may  be  designated  as  F,  Fig.  36.  Set 
the  dividers  equal  to  or  greater  than  the 
height  of  the  thickest  blocking,  so  that 
while  one  point,  a,  touches  the  leg,  the 
other,  b,  will  rest  upon  F  in  the  same  vertical  line.  Move  the 
dividers,  keeping  b  on  F,  and  producing  by  a  a  line  on  the  leg,  as 
ca,  which,  if  the  dividers  are  properly  handled,  will  be  parallel 
to  the  surface  F.  Without  changing  the  dividers,  mark  at  least 
two  adjoining  faces  on  each  leg,  and  cut  the  legs  to  line. 

It  is  evident  that  lines  thus  scribed  will  all  be  at  an  equal 
distance  from  the  surfa.ce  F;  .  and  the  table  top,  having  been 
.  37  made   parallel   to  F,  it 

follows  that  the  lines 
scribed  are  parallel  to 
the  top,  or  that  the 
length  of  the  four  legs, 
as  defined  by  the  lines, 
is  the  same. 

Example  2.  —  It  is  required  to  fit  the  end  of  a  board  B  to 
the  outline  abed  of  A,  Fig.  37.  Place  the  board  in  the  position 
shown,  and  set  the  dividers  at  a  distance  equal  to  x.  With 
one  point  at  a  and  the  other  at  e,  let  them  be  moved  together, 
one  following  the  outline  abed  which  the  other  produces  on  B, 


BENCH    TOOLS.  I? 

as  shown.  Cut  to  line,  and  the  board  will  fit.  When  sharp 
angles,  as  at  /,  enter  into  the  outline,  greater  accuracy  will 
be  attained  if  the  point  /  is  located  by  measuring  from  the 
base  line  hi. 


28.  Combining  Measuring  Appliances.  — To  find  the  hypot- 
enuse of  a  right-angled  triangle  when  the  other  two  sides  are 
known,  use  the  rule  and  framing- 
square,    as   shown   by  Fig.  38. 

Suppose  in  Fig.  30  the  length 

ab  =  5^",   and   the    length    ac 

=  9^" ;    to  find  the  length  be, 

apply  one  end  of  the  rule  to          .^^^  E-3 

the  9^"  mark  on  one  leg  of  the 

square,   and   bring  its  edge  to  /"  ot  6   s    *  9   s  * 

•  -J  •     ,  V  1    If  SS.  f,tl.l'.'l,ft'l.lfl,l?l.l,tl,  ,  ?!,,?!,  1*1,  I  ?!.,'. *l.  l.'l.l'- 

comcide  with  the  5^     mark  on 

the  other  leg,  as  shown  by  Fig.  38.  The  reading  of  the  rule 
where  it  coincides  with  the  5^"  mark,  or  10^",  will  be  the  length 
be.  The  length  thus  found  will  be  sufficiently  accurate  for 
many  purposes.  If  the  distance  to  be  measured  is  in  feet, 
imagine  every  inch  on  the  square  to  be  equal  to  a  foot,  and 
read  the  result  in  feet. 

If  the  proportions  of  the  triangle  are  very  large,  the  figure 
may  be  drawn  at  full  size  on  the  shop  floor,  and  the  extent  of 
each  part  determined  by  direct  measurement. 

29.  Setting  the  Bevel.  —  To 

set  the  bevel  at  a  miter  (an  angle 

of  45°),  place  the  beam  against 

one  leg  of  the  square  and  adjust 

the  blade  so  that  it  will  agree  with 

equal  distances  on  both  legs,  as 

4"  and  4",  Fig.  39.    Any  distance  may  be  taken,  but  it  must  be 

the  same  on  both  legs. 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


Fig.  40 


The  carpenter  frequently  describes  an  angle  to  which  the 
bevel  may  be  set,  as  "  i  in  2  "  or  "  i  in  4,"  by  which  is  meant 
that  while  the  beam  is  applied,  as  shown  by  Fig.  39,  the  blade 
corresponds  to  the  i"  mark  on  one  leg,  and  the  2"  mark  on 
the  other;  or  to  the  i"  mark  on  one  leg,  and  the  4"  mark  on 
the  other. 

30.  To  set  the  Bevel  at  an  Angle  of  60  Degrees.  —  In 

Fig.  40  the  board  A  has  a  jointed  edge  a  ;  from  this,  square  the 

line  be.  With  any  radius, 
use  the  dividers  to  strike 
the  arc  be ;  with  the  same 
radius,  strike  from  b  the  arc 
Place  the  beam  of  the 
bevel  against  the  working- 
face  a,  move  the  blade  till 
it  coincides  with  the  points 
b  and  /,  and  the  bevel  is  set  at  an  angle  of  60  degrees  with  one 
side  of  the  beam,  and  120  degrees  with  the  other. 

31.  To  set  the  Bevel  at  any  given  Angle.  —  If  an  attempt 

is  made  to  set  the  bevel  di- 
rectly from  lines  on  paper,  it 
will  be  found  difficult  to  de- 
termine when  the  tool  agrees 
with  the  parts  of  the  drawing. 
It  is  better,  therefore,  to 
transfer  such  an  angle  to  a 
board,  from  the  working-edge 
of  which  the  bevel  may  be 
set.  Thus,  if  it  is  required  to 
set  the  bevel  at  the  angle 
abc,  Fig.  41,  a  board  as  A, 
should  be  lined  as  follows  : 
from  the  working-edge  gauge  the  line  a'V  •  with  the  dividers, 


Fig.  41 


BENCH    TOOLS.  19 

at  any  convenient  radius,  describe  from  b'  the  arc  e'd' ;  with  the 
same  radius  describe  from  b  the  arc  ed ;  set  the  dividers  so  that 
with  one  point  on  e  the  other  will  fall  on/,  and  lay  off  this  dis- 
tance on  e'J',  locating  /' ;  connect  b'  and  /' ;  the  angle  a'b'c' 
will  be  equal  to  abc.  As  a'b'  is  by  construction  parallel  to  the 
working-edge  of  the  board,  the  angle  between  the  working-  \/ 
edge  and  b'c'  is  equal  to  the  angle  abc.  If,  then,  with  the  beam 
of  the  bevel  on  the  working-edge,  the  blade  is  made  to  coin- 
cide with  b'c',  the  bevel  will  be  set  at  the  angle  abc. 

32.  Marking-Gauges.  —  Fig.  42  shows  the  usual  form  of  a 
marking-gauge.     The  steel  point,  or  "spur,"  <?,  should  be  filed 
to  a  narrow  edge,  so  that  it 

will  make  a  sharp  line. 

The  graduations  along  the     m^ — r— 
length  of  the  beam  B,  are 
not  to  be  depended  on  un- 
less   it    is    known    that    the 
zero  line  is  exactly  opposite 

the  spur.  When  the  zero  mark  and  the  spur  do  not  agree,  as 
is  frequently  the  case,  it  is  necessary  in  setting  the  gauge  to 
measure  from  the  head  A  to  the  spur  e.  A  when  set,  is  pre- 
vented from  moving  on  B,  by  the  screw  C. 

33.  A  Mortise-Gauge,  shown  by  Fig.  43,  has  two  spurs,  a 
being  fastened  to  the  beam,  and  b  to  a  brass  slide  which  works 
in  a  groove  in  the  beam.    The 

spur  b  may  be  set  at  any  dis- 
tance from  a  by  the  action  of 
the  screw  c.  The  gauge  may, 
therefore,  be  set  to  line  both 
sides  of  a  mortise  at  the  same  time. 

34.  Panel-Gauges,  Fig.  44,  are  for  use  in  making  lines  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  working-edge. 


20  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

The  length  of  the  head  A  is  sufficiently  increased  to  receive 
good  support  from  the  working- edge,  which  guides  it. 


35.  Cutting-Gauges,  having  a  long,  thin  blade  in  the  place 
of  the  usual  spur,  are  in  form  similar  to  that  shown  by  Fig.  42. 
They  are  useful  in  cutting  strips  of  thin  material. 

36.  Chalk-Lines  are  very  seldom  used  in  bench  work,  but 
are  often  convenient  in  applying  such  work  to  larger  structures. 
The  cord  used  in  lining  should  be  as  small  as  is  consistent  with 
strength.     On  most  surfaces  blue  chalk  is  more  easily  seen  than 
white. 

37.  The  Scriber,  as  known  to  the  trade,  takes  a  variety  of 
forms,  from  that  of  an  awl  to  that  of  a  peculiar  short-bladed 
knife.      A  well-kept  pocket   knife  of  convenient  size  will   be 
found  a  good  substitute  for  any  of  them. 

38.  The  Pencil  used  in  lining  on  board  surfaces  should  be 
soft,  and  kept  well-pointed  by  frequent  sharpening. 

CHISELS  AND  CHISEL-LIKE  TOOLS. 

39.  Firmer-Chisels  have  blades  wholly  of  steel.     They  are 
fitted  with  light  handles  and  are  intended  for  hand  use  only. 

Kig.45 


40.  Framing-Chisels  have  heavy  iron  blades  overlaid  with 
steel.  The  handles  are  stout  and  are  protected  at  the  end  by 
ferrules.  This  chisel  is  used  in  heavy  mortising  and  framing, 
and  is  driven  to  its  work  by  the  mallet. 


BENCH    TOOLS. 


21 


Compare  Fig.  45,  which  shows  a  firmer-chisel,  with  Fig.  46, 
which  shows  a  framing-chisel. 

Fig.  4=0 


The  size  of  chisels  is  indicated  by  the  width  of  the  cutting 
edge,  and  varies  frojn  £"  to  i"  by  sixteenths,  and  from  i£"  to 
2"  by  fourths. 

41.  A  Corner-Chisel  is  shown  by  Fig.  47.  Its  two  cutting 
edges  are  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  this  form  renders 


it  useful  in  making  inside  angles,  as,  for  example,  the  corners  of 
a  mortise.  Its  handle  is  like  that  of  a  framing-chisel.  The  lize 
of  a  corner-chisel  is  indicated  by  the  length  of  one  cutting  edge. 

42.   Gouges  have  blades  that,  throughout  their  length,  are 
curved  in  section,  as  shown  by  Fig.  48.    When  the  bevel  forming 

Fig.  48 


the  cutting  edge  is  on  the  concave  side,  they  are  called  "inside 
gouges  "  ;  when  on  the  convex  side,  "  outside  gouges."  For 
general  purposes  the  outside  gouge  is  most  convenient,  and  the 
carpenter,  with  his  limited  facilities  for  the  care  of  tools,  can 
more  easily  keep  it  in  order.  The  size  of  a  gouge  is  indicated 
by  the  length  of  a  straight  line  extending  from  one  extremity  of 
the  cutting  edge  to  the  other. 


22  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

43.  Handles  for  chisels,  gouges,  and  similar  tools,  are  of  two 
general  classes,  light  and  heavy ;  the  former  are  intended  prin- 
cipally for  hand  use,  and  are  shown  in  connection  with  the  firmer- 
chisel  and  gouge ;  the  latter,  which  are  re-enforced  at  the  end 
by  a  ferrule  that  they  may  withstand  blows  from  the  mallet,  are 
illustrated  in  connection  with  the  framing-chisel  and  the  corner- 
chisel. 

Handles  may  be  shank-fitted,  like  the  one  shown  oy  Fig.  48, 
or  socket-fitted,  as  shown  by  Fig.  47.  The  better  class  of  tools 
have  socket-fitted  handles. 

44.  The  Drawing-Knife,  shown  by  Fig.  49,  is  in  reality  a 
wide  chisel,  though  it  is  quite  different  from  a  chisel  in  form. 


The  handles  are  so  attached  as  to  stand  in  advance  of  the  cut- 
ting edge,  which  is  drawn  into  the  work,  instead  of  being  pushed 
into  it,  as  is  the  case  with  a  chisel.  The  drawing-knife  is  very 
effective  on  narrow  surfaces  that  are  to  be  considerably  reduced. 
The  size  is  indicated  by  the  length  of  the  cutting  edge. 

45.  The  Action  of  Cutting  Wedges.  —  Every  cutting  tool 
is  a  wedge  more  or  less  acute.  In  action  it  has  two  operations 
to  perform  :  first,  cutting  the  fibers  of  the  wood  ;  and,  secondly, 
widening  the  cut  in  order  that  the  tool  may  penetrate  into  the 
material,  and  thus  allow  the  cutting  edge  to  go  on  with  its 
work.  To  widen  the  cut,  the  fibers  of  the  wood  must  be  pressed 
apart  (the  wood  split),  or  the  fiber  ends  crushed,  or  the  mate- 
rial on  one  side  of  the  wedge  must  be  bent,  thus  forming  a 


BENCH  TOOLS.  23 

shaving.  It  is  evident  that  a  unit  of  force  tending  to  drive  the 
edge  forward  will,  under  like  conditions  of  material,  always 
result  in  the  same  amount  of  incision.  But  much  less  force  is 
required  to  carry  the  tool  forward  when  the  cutting  edge  is  just 
entering  the  material,  than  when  it  has  advanced  to  a  consider- 
able depth,  and,  hence,  it  is  fair  to  assume  that  this  difference  is 
due  solely  to  the  resistance  that  the  material  offers  in  opening 
to  make  way  for  the  tool,  this  resistance  increasing  as  the  tool 
goes  deeper.  The  resistance  offered  to  a  tool  by  a  bending 
shaving,  therefore,  may  be  many  times  greater  than  that  offered 
to  the  cutting  edge  by  the  wood  fibers. 

An  obtuse-angled  wedge  will  cut  as  easily  as  a  more  acute- 
angled  one,  but  the  more  obtuse  the  angle  is,  the  more  abrupt 
must  be  the  turning  of  the  shaving ;  and  since  the  latter  factor 
is  the  more  important,  as  regards  the  absorption  of  force,  it 
follows  that  the  more  acute  the  cutting  edge  is,  the  more  easily 
it  will  accomplish  its  work. 

46.  Angle  of  Cutting  Wedge  in  Chisel  and  Gouge. — The 

acuteness  of  the  angle  cannot  be  defined  in  degrees  since, 
being  limited  only  by  the  strength  of  the  steel,  it  must  vary  as 
the  duty  required  of  it  varies.  For  example,  a  more  acute 
angle  may  be  used  in  soft  than  in  hard  wood ;  again,  a  chisel 
handled  as  shown  by  Figs.  147  and  148,  is  not  so  severely 
strained  as  when  used  in  the  manner  illustrated  by  Fig.  149. 
If  the  maximum  degree  of  delicacy  were  insisted  on  under 
every  condition  of  use,  the  cutting  edge  would  need  to  vary 
with  every  turn  of  the  chisel,  and  almost  with  every  shaving  it 
cuts.  This  would  be  impracticable,  and  wood  workers  reduce 
all  these  requirements  to  a  single  principle  which  may  be 
expressed  as  follows :  let  the  cutting  edge  be  as  acute  as  the 
metal  will  allow  without  breaking,  when  fairly  used.  A  little 
experience  with  a  given  tool  is  the  readiest  means  of  finding 
the  angle  suited  to  a  given  class  of  work.  Carriage  makers, 


24  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

who  work  almost  wholly  in  hard  woods,  are  in  the  habit  of 
using  what  pattern  makers,  who  work  principally  in  soft  woods, 
would  style  blunt  chisels. 

47.  Grinding.  —  A  new  chisel,  or  one  that  has  become  con- 
siderably dull,  must  be  ground.     With  the  handle  of  the  chisel 


in  the  right  hand,  and  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand  resting  on 
the  blade  near  its  cutting  edge,  apply  the  chisel  to  the  stone, 
Fig.  50,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  outline  a,  and  then  raise  the 
right  hand  until  the  proper  angle  is  reached,  a  position  indi- 
cated by  the  full  outline  b.  See  that  there  is  a  good  supply  of 
water,  and,  as  the  grinding  progresses,  move  the  tool  gradually 
from  one  side  of  the  stone  to  the  other. 

Assuming  that  the  stone  is  in  fairly  good  order,  the  tool 
should  be  applied  relative  to  its  motion,  in  the  manner  shown 
by  a  and  b,  Fig.  50,  the  motion  being  in  the  direction  of  the 
arrow  d.  If  the  stone  is  not  round  or  does  not  run  true,  there 
is  danger  that  the  cutting  edge  may  dig  into  it,  to  the  injury  of 
both  stone  and  tool.  Under  such  conditions,  it  will  be  best  for 
the  operator  to  move  round  to  the  other  side,  and  hold  the  tool 
in  the  position  indicated  by  c.  The  first  position  is  preferable, 
chiefly  because  of  two  reasons  :  first,  the  tool  may  be  held 
more  steadily ;  and,  secondly,  there  is  less  tendency  toward  the 
production  of  a  "  wire  edge."  As  the  extreme  edge  becomes 
thin  by  grinding,  it  springs  slightly  away  from  the  stone,  and 
allows  the  chisel  at  points  still  farther  from  the  edge  to  become 
thin,  thus  resulting  in  an  extremely  delicate  edge  which  must  be 
removed  before  the  tool  can  be  made  sharp.  In  the  effort  to 
remove  thij  wire  edge,  it  frequently  breaks  off  farther  back  than 


BENCH  TOOLS.  25 

is  desired,  and  the  process  of  whetting  is  prolonged.  With  the 
chisel  held  at  c  (instead  of  b,  the  proper  position)  the  direc- 
tion of  the  motion  relative  to  the  tool  aggravates  this  tendency 
of  the  light  edge  to  spring  away  from  the  stone. 

The  grinding  process  is  complete  when  the  ground  surface 
reaches  the  cutting  edge  —  a  condition  readily  determined  by 
holding  the  tool  to  the  light.  If  it  is  still  dull,  there  will  be  a 
bright  line  along  the  cutting  edge.  When  this  line  has  disap- 
peared, the  tool  is  as  sharp  as  it  can  be  made  by  grinding, 
which,  if  persisted  in,  will  only  result  in  a  wire  edge.  The 
action  of  the  grindstone,  however,  is  too  severe  to  produce  a 
good  cutting  edge,  and  the  chisel,  after  being  ground,  must  be 
whetted  (107-110). 

48.  To  whet  the 
chisel,  apply  it  to 
the  oilstone  A,  Fig. 
51,  in  the  position 
shown  by  the  dot- 
ted outline  b,  and 
as  it  is  moved  back 

and  forth  along  the  length  of  the  stone,  as  indicated  by  the 
arrows,  gradually  bring  it  to  the  position  shown  by  l>'.  That  is, 
the  angle  between  it  and  the  stone  is  to  be  increased  until  the 
cutting  edge  c  comes  in  contact  with  the  stone ;  this  position 
can  be  recognized  by  the  sensation  imparted  to  the  hand,  and 
the  behavior  of  the  oil  with  which  the  stone  is  lubricated.  At 
first  thought,  it  may  seem  that 
the  bevel  ab,  Fig.  52,  which  was  «Cvx  mg.  oa 

produced  by  the  grinding,  should  ^"S^  !    ^ 

be  maintained  in  whetting;    but  ^^_^ — : — -°  f 

to  do  this  would  require  so  much  N\T>i 

time  that  one  corresponding  very 
nearly  to  ab,  as  cd,  is  taken. 

Great  care  is  necessary  on  the  part  of  one  unskilled  to  avoid  giv- 


26  BENCH   WORK    IN    WOOD. 

ing  the  tool  a  rocking  motion  on  the  oilstone  ;  if  this  is  indulged 
^.^  ^  in,  the  edge  will  appear  rounded,  as 

l>/    c         shown  by  Fig.  53,  and  will  be  no 

^-^ j    sharper   than   if  it   had  the    form 

indicated   by    the    dotted    outline 

abc.     When  sufficiently  whetted,  the  cutting  edge,  if  held  to 
the  light,  will  show  a  dull,  grayish  hue.     If  a  bright  line  appears 
along  the  edge,  it  is  not  yet  sharp.     The  whetting  turns  a  light 
wire  edge  over  on  the  flat  face,  an  exaggeration  of  which  is 
shown  by  a,  Fig.  54.     This  can- 
not always  be  seen,  but  may  be 

_^  detected  by  the  finger ;  it  is  re- 
ft moved  by  a  single  stroke  of  the 
blade  with   the  flat  face  on   the 

stone,  as  shown  by  a',  Fig.  51.  It  is  necessary,  however,  that 
every  precaution  be  taken  to  prevent  the  production  of  a  bevel 
indicated  by  the  dotted  line  c,  Fig.  54,  and  opposite  that 
already  existing.  To  guard  against  this,  the  chisel  should  be 
applied  to  the  stone  in  the  manner  illustrated  by  the  outline  a, 
Fig.  51  (111-115). 

A  tool  must  be  whetted  often  enough  to  keep  the  edge  in 
good  condition  ;  it  is  dull  whenever  it  fails  to  cut  well.  When, 
by  frequent  whetting,  the  whetted  surface  becomes  so  broad  as 
to  require  considerable  time  in  the  production  of  the  edge,  it 
should  be  reground,  and  the  process  just  described  repeated. 

This  method  of  sharpening  the  chisel  will,  in  general,  apply 
to  the  gouge,  drawing-knife,  and  all  similar  tools. 

SAWS. 

49.  The  efficiency  of  any  saw  is  measured  by  the  amount  of 
force  it  absorbs  in  making  a  given  cut  or  "  kerf."  For  example, 
if  one  saw  severs  a  4"  x  4"  timber  with  half  the  force  required 
by  another,  it  is  evident  that  the  second  saw  is  only  one-half 
as  efficient  as  the  first.  Almost  every  element  that  enters  into 


BENCH    TOOLS.  2/ 

saw  construction  has  its  effect  on  the  efficiency  of  the  tool. 
Chief  among  them  is  the  thickness  of  the  blade,  which,  of 
course,  determines  the  width  of  the  kerf;  for  a  wide  kerf  will 
require  the  removal  of  more  material  than  a  narrow  one,  and 
the  force  absorbed  in  each  case  must  bear  some  relation  to  the 
amount*  of  material  removed.  In  recognition  of  this  fact,  the 
people  of  some  eastern  countries  use  saws  designed  to  cut 
when  drawn  towards  the  operator,  a  method  of  handling  that 
allows  great  thinness  of  blade  —  too  great  to  stand  the  thrust  by 
which  our  saws  are  driven  into  the  work.  But  the  result  is 
that  the  Chinese  saw,  for  example,  Fig.  55 

which  is  represented  by  Fig.  55, 
accomplishes  its  work  with  re- 
markable ease.  The  shape  of  such  a  saw,  however,  and  the 
awkward  manner  of  applying  force  to  it,  probably  more  than 
neutralize  the  advantage  gained  from  its  delicacy,  although  in 
the  abstract,  the  thinner  the  blade  the  better  the  saw. 

50.  The  form  of  our  own  saws  is  not  the  result  of  chance, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  has  been  developed  after  a  careful  study 
of  the  conditions  under  which  they  are  required  to  work. 
Other  things  being  equal,  pushing  a  saw  gives  better  results 
than  pulling  it.  Under  a  thrusting  force,  it  is  found  necessary 
to  make  the  blade  sufficiently  thick  and  strong  to  resist  bend- 
ing tendencies,  but  with  no  surplus  material  to  add  unneces- 
sary weight.  In  view  of  these  facts  the  outline  of  the  blade  is 
tapered,  as  shown  by  Fig.  56.  The  blade  is  thicker  also  at  the 
handle  than  at  the  point.  To  assist  in  giving  it  clearance  in 


the  kerf,  it  is  tapered  from  the  teeth  to  the  back.     This  differ- 
ence in  thickness  is  accomplished  .in  the  process  of  manufacture, 


28  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

by  grinding  the  rough  blade  after  it  has  been  hardened.  Im- 
perfections left  by  the  hardening  or  the  grinding  process,  may 
be  detected  in  the  finished  saw  by  bending  the  blade,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  57.  If  it  is  uniformly  ground  and  hardened,  the  curve 
will  be  regular  as  shown  ;  if  it  is  thick  in  spots,  or  if  it  varies  in 
hardness,  the  curve  will  be  uneven,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted 
line. 

51.  Set.  —  The  thinning  of  the  blade  back  from  the  cutting 
edge  will  not,  in  most  cases,  prevent  the  sides  of  the  kerf  from 
pressing  against  the  saw.    To  meet  this  difficulty,  the  saw  teeth 
are  bent  —  one  to  one  side,  the  next  to  the  other  side  —  so  as  to 
make  the  width  of  the  kerf  greater  than  the  thickness  of  the 
blade.     The  amount  of  such  bending,  or  "  set,"  as  well  as  its 
uniformity,  can  readily  be  seen  by  holding  the  saw  to  the  light 
with  the  back  of  the  blade  next  the  eye ;  it  will  then  appear  as 

shown  by  Fig.  58. 

In  very  hard  material  the  sides  of 

the  kerf  are  left  smooth  and  even,  and 
scarcely  any  set  is  required  ;  sometimes  even  none.  But  if  the 
material  is  soft  and  spongy,  the  fibers  spring  away  from  the 
advancing  teeth,  and  then  come  back  again  on  the  blade  after 
the  teeth  have  passed ;  hence,  a  large  amount  of  set  is  required. 
For  most  purposes  at  the  bench,  however,  the  set  is  sufficient 
when  it  can  be  easily  and  clearly  seen. 

52.  Size  of  Saw  Teeth.  — For  proper  action,  each  tooth 
should  begin  to  cut  when  it  enters  the  work,  and  continue  cut- 
ting until  it  leaves  the  kerf,  and,  since  the  space  in  front  of 
each  tooth  must  contain  the  material  removed  by  it,  the  capa- 
city of  the  space  must  be  increased  in  those  saws  which  are 
required  to  work  through  a  considerable  depth  of  material.     A 
two-handed  cross-cutting-saw  for  logs,  therefore,  has  the  teeth 
widely  placed,  thus  making  the  intervals  large. 

In  panel-saws,  such  as  are  used  at  the  bench,  except  in  spe- 


BENCH    TOOLS. 


29 


cial  cases,  the  space  is  of  the  same  size  and  form  with  the 
tooth.  When  the  spaces  are  large,  the  teeth  must  be  large, 
and,  since  the  size  of  the  spaces  has  a  direct  relation  to  the 
amount  of  material  removed,  it  may  be  said  that  the  size  of 
the  teeth  depends  on  the  size  of  the  material  in  which  the  saw 
is  to  work. 

The  size  of  saw  teeth  is  expressed  by  the  number  contained 
in  an  inch.  Thus  "  6  teeth  "  means  that  the  distance  from 
one  point  to  another  is  £  ". 

53.  Ripping-Saws  and  Cross-cutting-Saws. — A  ripping-saw 
is  one  that  is  used  in  cutting  with  the  grain  of  the  wood,  as  on  the 
line  ab,  Fig.  59.  Across-cutting-saw 
is  intended  for  use  at  right  angles  to 
the  grain,  as  indicated  by  cd,  Fig. 
59.  An  oblique  kerf,  such  as  is 
shown  by  ef,  Fig.  59,  may  in  soft 
wood  be  cut  with  the  ripping-saw,  which  will  work  faster  than 
the  cross-cutting,  but  the  work  will  be  more  smoothly  done 
by  the  latter.  A  large  knot  in  the  course  of  the  ripping-saw 
may  make  it  best  to  substitute  the  cross-cutting-saw  until  the 
knot  is  passed  through,  after  which  the  ripping-saw  may  be 
used  again.  A  cross-cutting-saw  for  the  bench  should  have 

Kij...  GO 


4., 


"-.  •"  Sec.  A  B. 

ELEVATION. 

a  22"  or  24"  blade  with  7^  or  8  teeth  to  the  inch;   a  rip- 
ping-saw should  have  a  24  "  or  26  "  blade,  with  6  or  6^  teeth. 


30  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

54.  The  Teeth  of  Ripping-Saws.  —  Fig.  60  shows  a  plan, 
elevation,  and  section  of  three  teeth  as  they  are  usually  made 
for  a  ripping-saw.  The  following  paragraphs  present  a  consid- 
eration of  the  action  of  an  individual  tooth. 

All  wood  is  fibrous,  and  any  tool  which  is  to  produce  a  cut 
along  the  length  of  the  fibers,  as  the  saw  kerf  ab,  Fig.  59,  must, 
at  each  period  of  action,  take  something  from  the  ends  of  such 


Kiy.  Gl  Fig.  OS 


fibers  as  may  lie  in  the  path  of  the  proposed  opening.  In  fulfil- 
ling this  condition,  the  action  of  a  ripping-saw's  tooth  is  not 
unlike  the  action  of  a  chisel  when  used  as  shown  by  Fig.  149. 
Each  tooth  in  its  turn  removes  its  share  from  the  fiber  ends  over 
which  it  passes,  just  as  the  chisel  at  every  change  of  position 
takes  its  slice  and  lengthens  the  cut.  The  cutting  edge  of 
a  saw  tooth,  however,  is  bounded  by  a  more  obtuse  angle  than 
that  of  a  chisel,  and  as  a  cutting  tool  is  inferior.  Thus,  if  one 
of  the  three  teeth  shown  by  Fig.  60  is  applied  to  a  saw  kerf  in 
the  position  it  would  occupy  as  part  of  a  complete  saw,  it  will 
appear  as  represented  by  Fig.  61,  its  motion  being  in  the  direc- 
K-IO.  OR  ^on  °^  tne  arrow-  It  ig  defective  as  a  cut- 

ting tool,  because  of  the  position  of  the 
line  ab,  the  advancing  face  of  the  tooth. 
This  defect  is  more  clearly  illustrated  by 
Fig.  62  ;  this  shows  how  a  chisel  would  look  if  its  edge  were 
made  to  cut  in  the  same  manner  as  that  of  a  saw  tooth. 
But  the  fact  is  that  a  great  discrepancy  exists  between  the 
form  of  the  saw  tooth  and  that  of  the  chisel,  for  it  has 
been  demonstrated  that  a  chisel,  to  give  good  results,  must 


BENCH    TOOLS.  31 

be  at  least  as  acute  as  is  indicated  by  the  dotted  line  a ; 
and  it  would  seem  that  the  former  might  be  improved  by 
bringing  it  more  nearly  to  the  outline  of  the  latter.  Sup- 
pose this  be  attempted,  and  that  the  face  of  the  tooth  in- 
dicated by  the  line  cb,  Fig.  60,  be  changed  to  cl>'.  Such 
a  change  must  result  either  in  removing  material  from  the 
tooth,  and  thereby  weakening  it,  or  in  changing  the  line  cd 
to  a  position  cd'.  In  other  words,  if  the  tooth  is  not  weak- 
ened, the  space  between  it  and  the  next  will  be  reduced. 
Again,  if  to  make  the  advancing  face  still  more  acute,  the  line 
cl>"  is  accepted,  and  the  tooth  is  not  made  smaller  (that  is, 
weakened),  there  will  be  no  space  between  it  and  the  next 
tooth.  Having  no  spaces,  there  can  be  no  teeth,  and  conse- 
quently the  attempted  change  is  impossible.  It  will  thus  be 
seen  that  the  angle  of  the  advancing  face  of  the  ripping-saw 
tooth  cannot,  unless  it  is  weakened,  be  much  more  acute  than 
is  shown  by  Fig.  60  and  Fig.  61. 

The  form  of  the  tooth  may  be  wholly  changed,  however,  to 
the  outline  shown  by  Fig.  63,  and  some  advantage  may  thus 
be  gained  in  respect  of  the  cutting  angle  ;  but  such  a  tooth, 
while  suitable  for  machine-saws  of  considerable  size,  is  too 
complicated  for  small  saws. 

Nothing  remains,  then,  as  a  possible  means  of  improving  the 
cutting  edge  of  the  saw  tooth,  except  a  modification  of  the 
angle  bed,  Fig.  60.  If  it  could  be  shown  that  there  is  an  excess 
of  strength  in  the  tooth,  above  what  is  needed  to  perform  its 
work,  the  angle  might  be  changed  to  b'cd,  or  even  to  b"cd,  and 
the  value  of  the  tooth  as  a  cutting  tool  be  increased.  More- 
over, it  does  not  at  first  seem  unreasonable  to  attempt  such  a 
change,  for  it  is  evident  that  the  cutting  wedge  of  the  chisel 
(which  we  have  regarded  as  the  typical  cutting  tool),  while 
much  more  acute  than  the  angle  bed,  is  yet  strong  enough  to 
be  entirely  satisfactory. 

A  more  careful  comparison  of  the  saw  and  chisel,  however, 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


discloses  the  following  facts  :  first,  a  saw  tooth  must  be  softer 
than  a  chisel  in  order  that  it  may  be  set  and  filed,  and  being 
softer,  is  therefore  weaker  in  its  substance  ;  secondly,  the  width 
of  the  saw  tooth  is  less  than  half  the  width  of  the  narrowest 
chisel  made,  and,  in  this  respect  also,  it  is  at  a  disadvan- 
tage ;  and,  thirdly,  in  using  a  chisel  the  operator's  atten- 
tion is  given  entirely  to  its  one  cutting  edge,  and  if  at  any 
time  it  is  likely  to  receive  too  much  strain,  it  is  at  once  re- 
lieved ;  while  each  saw  tooth,  on  the  contrary,  forms  but  a 
small  part  of  a  tool  that  receives  little  attention  and  much  vig- 
orous handling  while  it  is  being  driven  through  straight  grain, 
crooked  grain,  or  hard  knots,  as  the  case  may  be.  From  a 
consideration  of  these  points,  it  seems  clear  that  the  cutting- 
angle  of  a  saw  tooth  must  be  less  acute  than  that  of  a  chisel. 
But  the  degree  of  acuteness  can  be  determined  only  by  use. 
Fig.  60  shows  the  form  which  years  of  experience  have  proved 
the  most  practicable  for  general  work,  and  while  some  bench- 
workers  do  file  their  saws  "  under,"  producing  a  tooth  similar 
to  dcb\  as  many  more  go  to  the  other  extreme  and  use  a  tooth 
similar  to  dcf.  The  typical  form  given  is  easily  kept  in  order, 
and,  when  in  that  condition,  will  cut  freely  and  well. 

55.    The  Teeth  of   Cross-cutting-Saws.  —  If  a  ripping-saw 
is  used  directly  across  the  grain,  the  fibers  of  the  material  will 

be  torn  from  each 
other  without  being 
properly  cut  ;  hence 

^e  necessity  f°r  a 
saw  that  will  "  cross- 
cut."  Fig.  64  shows 
by  its  three  views  a 

rePresentative    form 
of  tooth  for  this  saw. 
It  will  be  seen  by  the  figure  that  the  tooth  terminates  in  a  trian- 


Fis.64 


BENCH    TOOLS.  33 

gular  point ;  and  also,  that  while  the  point  a  is  formed  on  one 
side  of  the  blade,  the  next,  a',  is  formed  on  the  opposite  side  ; 
thus  throughout  its  length,  the  points  of  any  two  adjacent  teeth 
being  on  opposite  sides  of  the  blade.  This  arrangement  makes 
the  end  view  of  the  blade  show  two  parallel  lines  of  points,  and 
between  them  a  triangular  depression,  which,  when  exaggerated 
by  the  "set,"  will  appear  as  shown  by 
section  AB,  Fig.  64.  3ris' 

In  action,  the  points  a  and  a',  Fig.  65, 
score  the  work,  and  the  friction  between 
the  teeth  and  the  cut  fibers  breaks  up 
the  latter,  and  they  are  carried  off  by 
the  saw. 

Assuming  that  it  is  a  matter  of  convenience  to  have  these 
teeth,  as  well  as  those  of  the  ripping-saw,  equal  to  the  space 
between  any  two  of  them,  there  are  three  questions  which  may 
be  considered  concerning  their  proportions.  First,  what  shall 
be  the  inclination  of  the  advancing  edge  or  "  face  "  of  the 
tooth,  as  represented  by  the  line  ab  compared  with  the  line  bd, 
Fig.  64  ?  Holly,  in  his  little  work  on  "  The  Art  of  Saw- Filing," 
shows  the  similarity  of  action  between  the  advancing  edge  ab 
and  the  edge  of  a  pocket  knife  when  made  to  cut  across  the 
grain,  and  asserts  that  a  knife  with  its  cutting  edge  perpen- 
dicular to  the  surface  upon  which  it  acts  (a  position  equiva- 
lent to  bd}  will  make  a  rougher  cut,  and  require  more  force 
to  carry  it  forward  at  a  given  depth,  than  when  it  is  inclined 
in  a  position  similar  to  that  of  the  line  ab.  The  result  obtained 
from  such  an  experiment  cannot  be  regarded  as  conclusive, 
because  of  the  great  difference  in  the  character  of  the  cutting 
edges  compared.  But,  if  it  is  found  that  the  knife  with  its 
keen  cutting  edge  behaves  more  satisfactorily  at  an  inclination 
to  the  work,  it  seems  reasonable  to  conclude  that  the  rougher 
edge  of  a  saw  tooth  will  give  the  best  results  when  much  more 
inclined.  A  consideration  of  these  points  justifies  the  belief 


34  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

that  an  angle  of  60  degrees  with  the  work,  that  is,  with  a  line 
passing  through  the  points  a '  and  a,  is  none  too  great,  and  all 
practice  goes  to  show  that  teeth  so  formed  not  only  do  very 
smooth  work,  but  cut  with  ease  and  rapidity. 

Secondly,  what  shall  be  the  angle  of  the  advancing  face  of 
the  tooth,  as  represented  by  lines  e'e  and  ef,  Sec.  EF,  Fig.  64  ? 
Since  this  angle  forms  the  cutting  wedge  of  the  tooth,  it  should 
be  as  acute  as  is  consistent  with  strength.  Greater  strength 
being  required  for  action  in  hard  wood  than  in  soft,  it  follows 
that  this  angle  should  be  varied  with  the  material  in  which  it  is 
used.  For  general  work  it  may  correspond  to  the  angle  e'ef. 

Thirdly,  what  shall  be  the  acuteness  of  the  point  as  indicated 
by  the  angle  iaj,  Sec.  AB,  Fig.  64  ?  This,  also,  is  determined 
by  the  character  of  the  material  to  be  cut.  It  should  be  more 
obtuse,  as  iak,  for  hard  wood  than  for  soft  wood,  not  only  be- 
cause additional  strength  is  required,  but  also  because,  if  too 
acute,  the  scoring  will  be  done  so  easily  that  the  fibers  be- 
tween the  scores  will  not  break  out,  and  the  saw,  being  unable 
to  pass  down  into  new  work,  will  slide  along  on  the  old. 


Under  such  conditions,  the  bottom  of  the  kerf  will  appear 
as  shown  by  Fig.  66.  A  more  obtuse  angle  will  not  pene- 
trate the  work  so  readily,  but  it  will  break  up  the  fibers  better, 
and  thus  leave  the  kerf  in  proper  form  as  shown  by  Fig.  67. 
The  softer  woods  break  out  more  easily  than  the  harder  ones, 
and,  consequently,  a  keener  point  may  be  used  in  working  in 
them. 

56.    The  Back-Saw  is  used  only  where  accurate  cuts  are 
required.     Its  teeth,  in  form,  are  similar  to  those  of  the  cross- 


BENCH    TOOLS. 


35 


Fig.  G8 


cutting-saw,  except  that    die   line   of  the   advancing   face    is 

brought  forward  as  indicated  by  bkl,  Fig.  64,  to  increase  their 

efficiency  when  used  with  the 

grain.       They   are,    however, 

much  finer,  there  being  usually 

as    many    as    sixteen    to    the 

inch.     This  saw  cuts  slowly  as 

compared  with  a  panel-saw,  but  may  be  used  in  very  delicate 

work.     It  is  used  to  cut  in  any  direction  relative  to  the  grain 

of  the  wood.     The  bur  left  by  the  file  after  sharpening,  forms 

a  sufficient  set. 

The  blade  A,  Fig.  68,  is  in  itself  too  thin  to  withstand  the 
thrust  necessary  to  drive  it  into  the  work,  and  is  strengthened 
by  an  iron  "back,"  B.  This,  being  thicker  than  the  blade,  will 
not  allow  the  saw  to  penetrate  beyond  a  depth  represented  by 
the  distance  C.  For  this  reason  the  blade  is  uniform  in  width 
instead  of  tapering. 

57.  The  Compass-Saw,  shown  by  Fig.  69,  is  intended  for 
sawing  in  curved  lines.  Its  blade  is  extremely  thick,  and  the 

teeth  are  given  an  enor- 
mous amount  of  set.  See 
sections  AB  and  CD, 
Fig.  69.  If  the  curve  in 
which  it  is  to  be  used  is 
very  small,  only  a  short 
portion  of  the  blade's 
length  next  the  point  can 
be  used.  With  a  curve 
of  longer  radius,  a  greater  length  of  blade  may  be  brought  into 
action. 

Its  teeth  are  of  the  form  shown  by  Fig. 
70,  having  the  square  face  of  the  ripping- 
saw,  and  the  point  of  the  cross-cutting-saw. 


Vis-  GO 


Sec.  AR. 

(.Enlarged) 


Fig.  70 


,£  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

They  are  thus  adapted  for  use  in  any  direction  relative  to  the 
grain  of  the  wood. 

APPLIANCES  FOR  SAW  FILING  AND  SETTING. 

58.    A  "  Triangular  Saw  File "  l  is  of  the  form  shown  by 
Fig.  71.     A  "slim"  saw  file  is  represented  by  Fig.  72;  it  is 


REGULAR. 

two  inches  longer  than  a  "regular"  saw  file  of  the 
same  cross-section.  A  "  double  ender "  is  shown  by 
Fig.  73,  and  a  cross-section  of  all  saw  files,  on  an  en- 
larged scale,  by  Fig.  74. 

59.    Saw  Sets.  —  Fig.  75  shows  a  simple  form  of  set. 
The  tooth  to  be  bent  is  placed  on  the  surface  A,  with 

J  Frequently  called  "  three-square  saw  file." 


BENCH    TOOLS. 


37 


Thus   placed,  the 


Fig.  75 


the   adjacent   teeth   in  contact  with  B,  B. 

blade   is  allowed   to    rest 

on  the  screw  C.     A  blow 

from    a    hammer   on    D 

bends  or  "sets"  the  tooth, 

and  a  spring  returns  D  to 

the  position  shown.1    The 

amount  of  set  is  regulated 

by   the    position    of    the 

screw   C,  and   is  greater, 

the  lower  C  is  fixed.    If  C 

is  raised  to  coincide  with 

the  dotted  line  AE,  the 

tooth  will  not  be  set.     B,  B  can  be  adjusted  to  the  depth  on 

the  tooth  to  which  the  set  is  to  take  effect. 

60.  Swedge  Sets  for  Ripping-Saws,  illustrated  by  Fig.  76, 
are  in  general  use  on  large 
saws  and,  occasionally,  on 
small  ones  ;  generally  speak- 
ing, they  do  not  concern  the 
bench-worker.  The  set 


1  D  is  not  well  shown  in  the  engraving.     Since  it  must  act  on  only  one 
tooth  at  a  time,  the  end  X  is  wedge-shaped. 


38  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

driven  against  the  edge  of  the  tooth,  as  shown  by  Fig.  77  ;  by 
using  one  opening  the  center  of  the  tooth  is  forced  back,  as 
at  H;  and  by  use  of  the  other  opening  the  points  are  spread, 
completing  the  work,  as  at  G.  A  tooth  thus  set  is  more 
perfect  in  its  action  than  when  bent,  since  it  cuts  the  full  width 
of  the  kerf. 

61.    Saw  Clamps  are  convenient  for  holding  the  saw  during 

Fig.  78 


the  filing  process.  Carpenters  frequently  make  for  themselves 
clamps  similar  to  that  represented  by  Fig.  78.  It  consists  of 
two  pieces  of  hard  wood  joined  face  to  face  by  two  screws 
(one  near  each  end),  by  means  of  which  the  clamp  may  be 
.  TO  fastened  rigidly  to  the  blade  of 

the  saw.  It  may  then  be  fast- 
ened in  the  vise  or  held  on 
the  knee  while  the  saw  is  being 
filed.  A  much  better  device  is 
the  saw  clamp  shown  by  Fig. 
79,  which,  while  fastened  to  the 
bench,  so  holds  the  saw  that  it 
may  be  turned  in  almost  any 
direction,  thus  enabling  the 
workman  to  obtain  a  favorable 
light. 


BENCH  TOOLS.  39 

To  FILE  AND  SET  A  SAW. 

62.  Top-Jointing.  —  With  the  saw  clamped  teeth  up,  joint 
it  by  running  a  file  along  the  tops  of  the  teeth,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  80.    This  is  done  to  bring  all  the  teeth  to  the  same  height, 
and  also  to  maintain  the  form  of  the  saw,  which,  along  the 
line  of  the  teeth,  should  be  slightly  con-  yig.  so 

vex.  The  jointing  should  leave  a  small 
facet  on  each  tooth,  which  will  be  rec- 
tangular in  a  ripping-saw  and  triangular 
in  a  cross- cutting- saw. 

63.  Setting.  —  Beginning  at  one  end,  bend  outward  every 
second  tooth,  then  turn  the  saw  and  bend  the  remaining  teeth 
toward  the  opposite  side  of  the  blade.     In  the  case  of  the  rip- 
ping-saw, if  the  swedge  set  is  used,  the  setting  should  be  done 
before  jointing. 

64.  Filing.  —  It  is   of  great  importance  that  the  saw  be 
properly  supported  during  the  operation  of  filing.     An  unusual 
amount  of  noise  shows  that  the  blade  is  not  properly  clamped, 
or  that  the  file  is  not  being  properly  handled ;  it  is  also  a  sure 
indication  that  the  filing  is  not  going  on  as  fast  as  it  might,  and 
that  the  file  is  being  injured.     If  the  file  is  new,  let  the  pres- 
sure be  very  light.    Carry  it  across  the  work  with  a  slow,  steady 
movement.     Never  take  short,  quick  strokes,  as  but  little  will 
be  done  in  this  way,  and  the  file  will  suffer  beyond  repair.     In 
filing  a  ripping-saw,  the   movement  should   be 

exactly  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  blade, 

as  indicated  by  plan,  Fig.  81,  and  the  outline 

of  the  teeth  maintained  by  an  even  contact,  as 

shown  by  the  elevation  in  the  same  figure.     But 

if  the  form  of  the  teeth  is  to  be  changed,  the  file 

must  be  turned  either  in  the  direction  indicated  PLAN> 

by  the  arrow,  Fig.  81,  or  in  the  opposite  direction. 

In  filing  a  cross-cutting-saw,  the  angle  between  the  file  and 


40  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

the  blade  must  be  varied  in  accordance  with  the  following  con- 
siderations :  first,  the  outline  of  the  teeth  may  be  preserved 
or  changed  in  the  manner  just  described  in  connection  with 
the  ripping-saw;  secondly,  the  angle  of  the  advancing  face 
(e'ef,  Fig.  64)  is  determined  by  the  inclination  of  the  file 

to  the  blade,  as  shown 
by  the  plan,  Fig.  82 ; 
thirdly,  the  angle  of  the 
point  (taj,  Fig.  64)  is 
PLANT.  Fig.  sa  determined  by  the  incli- 

r~j  nation  of  the  file  to  the 

AAA^^y^AA  ^^\z^^^  blade,  as  shown  by  the 

\  f/-  ^3-^ii  en<^   elevation,  Fig.  82. 


SIDE  ELEVATION. 

END  ELEVATION. 


upon  from  principles  already  given,  it  may  be  produced  without 
difficulty  by  attending  to  the  foregoing  directions. 

In  filing  any  of  the  teeth  herein  discussed,  the  file  should 
always  be  in  gentle  contact  with  the  face  of  one  tooth,  as  b, 
Fig.  8  1,  while  most  of  the  cutting  is  done  on  the  back  of  the 
next  one  a,  which,  as  usually  considered,  is  the  tooth  that  is 
being  filed.  This  tooth  should  be  one  which,  by  its  set,  bends 
away  from  the  operator.  Beginning  at  one  end  of  the  blade, 
he  files  every  second  tooth  until  the  opposite  end  is  reached, 
when  the  blade  is  turned,  and  the  remaining  teeth  filed  from 
the  other  side. 

No  saw,  even  though  the  teeth  are  not  bent,  should  be  filed 
wholly  from  one  side,  for  the  file  turns  a  slight  edge,  or  bur  ; 
and,  since  this  increases  the  set,  it  should  be  evenly  distributed 
on  both  sides  of  the  blade. 

The  filing  on  each  tooth  should  continue  until  the  facet 
produced  by  the  jointing  disappears.  After  this  is  accom- 
plished, a  single  stroke  will  make  the  tooth  receiving  it  lower 
than  the  others.  To  avoid  this,  it  will  be  found  best  to  leave 


BENCH    TOOLS.  4! 

the  teeth  filed  from  the  first  side  a  little  dull,  for,  in  filing  the 
intermediate  teeth  after  the  saw  has  been  turned,  the  advancing 
faces  of  the  others  (the  teeth  first  filed)  are  somewhat  reduced. 
After  every  tooth  has  been  passed  over,  if  dull  points  are  still 
to  be  seen,  they  may  be  sharpened  from  either  side  as  their 
proportions  may  dictate.  Regularity  in  the  size  and  form  of 
the  teeth,  and  a  similarity  of  appearance  when  viewed  from 
either  side  of  the  blade,  are  the  tests  of  good  workmanship. 

65.  Side-Jointing.  —  Usually,  when  the  fil-          vig.&a 
ing  is  finished,  the  saw  is  ready  for  use,  but  it    1          / 
will  cut  more  smoothly  if  it  is  jointed  on  the     ' 

sides  of  the  teeth.  In  Fig.  83,  B  is  side- 
jointed,  the  surfaces  produced  agreeing  with 
the  dotted  lines  ;  A  is  not  side-jointed. 

Side-jointing  may  be  accomplished  by  use 
of  either  a  file  or  an  oilstone.  It  is  always 
necessary  after  a  swedge  set  has  been  used. 

PLANES  AND  PLANE-LIKE  TOOLS. 

66.  The  plan  and  the  section,  Fig.  84,  show  a  smooth-plane. 
The  stock  a,  when  of  wood,  is  usually  of  beech.     In  it  is  an 
opening,  or  "  throat,"  b,  which  receives  the 

iron  c ;  this  is  held  in  place  by  the  wedge  d. 
The  lower  part  of  the  opening  is  called  the 
mouth  ;  and,  as  shown  by  the  figure,  the  shav- 
ing passes  into  the  mouth,  ^and  out  through  section  A  B. 
the  throat.  The  bottom  of  the  plane,  which  rests  upon  the 
work,  is  called  its  "  face."  The  iron  usually  stands  at  an  angle 
of  45  degrees  with  the  face. 

The  bench-worker's  set  of  planes  comprises  a  smooth-plane, 
Fig.  85,  which  is  about  8"  in  length ;  a  jack-plane,  Fig.  86, 
which  is  from  12"  to  14"  in  length ;  a  fore-plane,  Fig.  87,  from 
22"  to  26"  in  length ;  and  a  jointer,  from  28"  to  30"  in  length. 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


Similar  purposes  are  served  by  the  jointer  and  the  fore-plane, 
the  former  being  unnecessary  except  for  large  surfaces  that  are 
to  be  planed  with  accuracy. 


Fig.  85 


67.  The  Length  of  the  Plane-Stock  determines,  in  a  measure, 
the  straightness  of  the  work.     Thus,  a  smooth-plane,  if  used  on 

Fig.  ss  an   uneven    surface,  will, 

as  shown  by  Fig.  88,  rise 
over  elevated  portions  and 
settle  in  hollows,  taking  its  shaving  without  interruption,  and 
producing  no  great  change  in  the  outline  of  the  surface,  while 

a  fore-plane  or  jointer 
similarly  applied  will,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  89,  cut 
only  on  the  higher  parts, 
and  by  so  doing,  produce  an  even  surface. 

The  stock  of  a  smooth-plane  is  made  short  so  that,  by  its  use, 
a  surface  may  be  smoothed  without  incurring  the  necessity  of 
straightening  it. 

The  fore-plane  will  smooth  as  well  as  the  smooth-plane,  but 
not  until  it  has  first  straightened  the  surface. 

The  jack-plane  is  used  for  cutting  heavy  shavings,  and  its 
length  bears  no  relation  to  the  character  of  the  work  expected 
of  it,  but  is  such  as  will  enable  the  workman  to  grasp  it  easily 
and  firmly. 

68.  A  "Plane-Iron"1  for  a  wooden  plane  is  of  iron  overlaid 
in  part  with  steel.     Ite  cutting  edge  is  maintained  in  precisely 
the  same  way  as  that  of  a  chisel.     See  47  and  48.     The  angle 

1  Known  also  as  "  plane-bit." 


BENCH  TOOLS.  43 

of  the  cutting  wedge,  however,  for  all  except  the  jack-plane 
may  be  more  acute. 

69.  The  outline  of  the  cutting  edge,  unlike  that  of  the  chisel, 
is  never  straight,  being  for  the  jack-plane  slightly  curved,  as 

shown  by  Fig.  90,  and  for  the  smooth-plane  prig.  91 
and  fore-plane  (also  for  the  jointer)  of  the 
form  shown  by  Fig.  91.  Being  used  for 
heavy  work  and  frequently  removing  shav- 
ings as  thick  as  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch, 
the  jack-plane,  if  its  cutting  edge  were 
straight,  would  produce  in  the  work  at 
each  stroke  a  rectangular  channel  from 
which  the  shaving  must  be  torn  as  well  as  cut.  Such 
a  shaving  would  be  likely  to  stick  fast  in  the  throat 
of  the  plane,  or,  under  most  favorable  conditions, 
would  require  a  large  amount  of  force  for  its  removal. 
A  shaving  removed  by  the  iron  represented  by  Fig. 
90,  however,  is  not  rectangular  in  section,  but  thick 
in  the  middle,  tapering  gradually  to  nothing  at  the  edges. 
This  form  of  iron  is  best  adapted  to  the  removal  of  a  large 
amount  of  material  at  a  stroke,  but  it  leaves  a  succession  of 
grooves  upon  the  work  which  must  be  smoothed  off  by  another 
plane. 

70.  The  form  of  the  cutting  iron  in  the  smooth-plane  and 
the  fore-plane,  as  shown  by  Fig.  91,  is  straight  throughout  the 
greater  portion  of  its  width,  and  slightly  rounded  at  the  corners. 
The  objections  urged  against  the  use  of  such  an  iron  as  this  in 
tbe  jack-plane,  do  not  apply  to  its  use  in  the  smooth-plane  or 
the  fore-plane,  because  the  jack-plane,  to  fulfil  its  office,  must 
remove  a  heavy  shaving ;  the  smooth-plane  or  the  fore-plane, 
unless  the  surface  upon  which  it  acts  is  very  much  narrower 
than  the  width  of  the  plane,  is  required  to  remove  a  shaving 
whose  thickness  rarely  exceeds  that  of  a  sheet  of  paper.     The 


44 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


groove  caused  by  the  removal  of  so  delicate  a  shaving,  is  suf- 
ficiently blended  with  the  general  surface  of  the  work,  by  the 
rounded  corners  of  the  iron. 

71.  If  a  rough  board  is  to  be  made  smooth,  or  if  a  consider- 
able amount  of  material  is  to  be  removed  to  bring  a  piece  of 
wood  to  size,  most  of  the  surplus  stock  should  be  taken  off  by 
the  jack-plane,  after  which  the  smooth-plane  should  be  used  to 
give  the  surface  desired.     If  the  finished  surface  is  to  be  straight 
as  well  as  smooth,  the  fore-plane  should  follow  the  jack-plane. 
It  is  never  necessary  to  follow  the  jack-plane  with  both  the 
smooth-plane  and  the  fore-plane. 

72.  The  Cap.  —  A  supplementary  iron,  or  "cap,"  shown  by 

c,  Fig.  92,  is  fastened  to 
most  plane-irons.  Its  use 
is  well  illustrated  by  the 
two  sections,  Figs.  93  and 
94.  The  single  iron  will 
do  smooth  work  as  long  as 
the  grain  of  the  wood  is  favorable,  as  shown  at  a.  When  the 


Kig.  02 


grain  becomes  obstinate,  as  at  b,  the  shaving,  by  running  up  on 
the  iron,  acquires  a  leverage  which  causes  it  to  split  in  advance 


BENCH    TOOLS. 


45 


of  the  cutting  edge,  below  the  reach  of  which  it  breaks,  leaving 
a  surface  extremely  rough.  The  office  of  the  cap  is  to  break 
the  shaving  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  is  cut,  Fig.  94,  and  thus 
prevent  a  gain  of  leverage  on  its  part. 


The  distance  at  which  the  cap  is  set  from  the  edge  of  the 
iron,  must  vary  with  the  thickness  of  the  shaving  taken.  For  a 
smooth-plane  or  a  fore-plane,  a  thirty-second  of  an  inch  is  fre- 
quently not  too  close,  while  for  a  jack-plane  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  may  not  be  too  great  a  distance. 

A  cutting  iron  and  cap  together  are  frequently  spoken  of  as 
a  "  double  iron." 

73.  Narrowness  of  Mouth  in  a  plane  is  the  chief  element 
in  the  production  of  smooth  surfaces.  If,  in  Fig.  94,  that  por- 
tion of  the  stock  in  advance  of  the  iron,  marked  c,  were  want- 
ing, the  shaving,  having  nothing  to  hold  it  down,  would  rarely 
be  broken,  notwithstanding  the  presence  of  the  cap.  A  wide 
mouth  would  produce  a  similar  effect.  This  being  true,  what- 
ever other  conditions  there  may  be,  the  wider  the  mouth  is, 
the  less  frequently  the  shaving  will  be  broken  and,  in  obstinate 
grain,  the  rougher  will  be  the  work. 


46  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

74.  To  Adjust  the  Iron. — To  set  the  iron  deeper,  so  that 
a  heavier  cut  may  be  taken,  strike  it  a  light  blow,  as  indicated 
by  the  arrow  e,  Fig.  84.  If  a  lighter  cut  is  required,  strike  the 
stock  as  indicated  by  the  arrow  /.  When  the  iron  is  in  the 
right  position,  a  light  blow  will  tighten  the  wedge.  To  remove 
the  iron  and  wedge,  turn  the  plane  over  so  that  the  face  is 
uppermost,  grasp  the  iron  and  wedge  with  the  right  hand,  hold 
the  back  end  of  the  plane  between  the  thumb  and  finger  of  the 
left,  and  strike  the  stock  at  /  upon  the  surface  of  the  bench. 
A  single  blow  is  usually  sufficient. 

Never  strike  the  plane  while  it  is  resting  on  the  bench  or  any 
support  that  is  firm.  It  should  be  held  in  the  hand  clear  of 
everything ;  but,  if  this  is  not  convenient,  one  end  may  rest  on 
the  knee. 

To  set  the  iron  in  a  wooden  plane,  hold  the  stock  in  such  a 
way  that,  while  the  face  rests  on  the  hand,  the  end  of  the  fore- 
finger may  extend  across  the  mouth.  Put  the  iron  in  place, 
allowing  its  cutting  edge  to  rest  on  the  forefinger,  which  should 
keep  it  from  projecting.  Insert  the  wedge,  push  it  down  with 
the  thumb,  and  by  a  light  blow  with  the  hammer  drive  the  iron 
down  until  its  projection  beyond  the  level  of  the  face  is  equal 
to  the  thickness  of  the  shaving  that  the  plane  is  to  take  ;  a  sin- 
gle tap  on  the  wedge  will  then  tighten  the  iron  in  place.  The 
distance  that  the  iron  projects,  can  easily  be  determined  by 
sighting  along  the  face  of  the  plane. 

The  wedge  must  not  be  driven  too  hard,  for  a  plane  may  be 
so  distorted  by  a  hard-driven  wedge  as  to  make  it  incapable  of 
doing  good  work.  The  iron  will  be  held  in  place  even  when 
the  wedge  is  so  loose  that  it  may  be  drawn  out  with  the  fingers. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  wooden  plane-stocks  are  made 
from  material  little  affected  by  atmospheric  influences,  they 
will  warp  enough,  especially  when  nearly  new,  to  bring  the  face 
considerably  out  of  a  true  plane.  When,  from  this  cause,  the 
plane  fails  to  do  good  work,  it  must  be  jointed. 


BENCH    TOOLS. 


47 


Fig.  OS 


75.  To  Joint  a  Plane,  fasten  it  in  a  vise  with  the  face  up 
and  the  front  end  to  the  right.  The  iron  should  be  in  place,  the 
cutting  edge  well  back  within  the  mouth, 
and  the  wedge  driven  as  for  work.  It  is  now 
necessary  to  determine  whether  the  plane 
to  be  jointed  is  twisted  or  not  (97).  Ap- 
ply two  parallel  strips,  or  "winding-sticks," 
(the  longer  legs  of  two  framing-squares  will 
answer),  one  across  each  end  of  the  plane, 
as  indicated  by  Fig.  95.  After  making 
sure  that  they  are  parallel,  sight  across  one 
to  the  other.  As  the  eye  is  lowered,  if  the 
one  farther  away  is  lost  sight  of  all  at  the 
same  time,  the  plane  is  "out  of  wind,"  and 
needs  only  to  be  straightened ;  but,  if  one 
end  of  the  straight-edge  that  is  farther 
from  the  eye,  disappears  before  its  other 
end,  as  in  the  elevation,  Fig.  95,  it  is  evident  that  the  two 
corners  a  and  b,  diagonally  opposite,  are  high,  and  more  must 
be  taken  from  them  than  from  the  other  corners.  With  this 
understanding,  the  fore-plane  or  the  jointer  may  be  applied 
until  the  plane  is  jointed,  that  is,  until  the  face  is  a  true 
plane. 

During  the  planing  process,  frequent  tests  must  be  made 
with  the  parallel  strips,  to  make  sure  that  the  high  corners 
are  being  brought  down  properly.  In  the  early  stages  of 
the  work,  the  try-square  may  be  used  occasionally  to  keep 
the  face  as  nearly  as  may  be  at  right  angles  to  one  side, 
and  the  straightness  of  the  face  may  be  determined  either 
by  sighting  or  by  use  of  the  framing- square  as  a  straight- 
edge. A  true  face  having  been  produced,  the  sharp  angles 
between  it  and  the  two  sides  should  be  changed  to  slight 
chamfers,  inasmuch  as  the  sharp  edges,  if  not  removed,  are 
likely  to  splinter  off. 


48  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

A  few  drops  of  lubricating  oil  rubbed  on  the  newly- 
planed  surface,  will  prevent  wear  and  keep  shavings  from 
sticking. 

Wooden  bench  planes  have  had  their  day,  and  are  going  out 
of  use. 

Iron  Bench  Planes  possess  the  general  characteristics  of 
the  wooden  ones,  but  are  superior 
to  them  in  several  respects.     They 
E ^"%X$\\.  are  alwavs  perfectly  true  and,  there- 

fore, never  require  jointing.  The 
cutting  "  iron,"  which,  in  this  case, 
is  not  of  iron  at  all,  but  of  steel,  is  much  thinner  than  that  in 
wooden  planes,  and  is,  therefore,  more  readily  sharpened.  Its 
greater  thinness  is  made  possible  by  the  thorough  manner  in 
which  it  is  supported.  It  may  be  set  and  accurately  adjusted 
in  a  very  short  time. 

The  arrangement  of  parts  in  Bailey's  iron  planes  may  be 
understood  by  reference  to  Fig.  96,  which  represents  a  jack- 
plane.  The  "  wedge  "  A  is  of  iron  of  the  form  shown ;  it 
admits  the  screw  E  through  an  enlargement  of  a  short  slot,  and 
drops  down,  allowing  E  to  take  effect.  By  a  movement  of  the 
clamp  S,  the  wedge  A  is  made  to  press  upon  the  iron  near  its 
cutting  edge,  while  the  clamp  presses  against  it  at  F,  The 
screw  E  is  never  moved.  The  cutting  iron  is  adjusted  for 
depth  of  cut  by  the  action  of  the  thumb-screw  D,  which,  when 
turned  in  one  direction,  moves  the  iron  downward,  and  when 
its  motion  is  reversed  moves  it  upward. 

Thus  a  single  movement  of  B  releases  the  wedge  and  iron, 
and  a  reverse  movement  secures  them  again,  while  D  furnishes 
a  ready  and  positive  means  for  adjusting  the  cutting  edge  with 
a  degree  of  delicacy  which  it  is  impossible  to  attain  in  wooden 
planes.  These  planes,  all  having  the  same  adjustments,  are 
made  in  every  size. 


BENCH    TOOLS. 


49 


77.   Planes  of  Wood  and  Iron  Combined 

may  be  had,  made  up  of  the  Bailey  move- 
ments mounted  in  a  suitable  frame,  to  which 
a  wooden  face  is  fastened.  Fig.  97  shows 
a  Stanley  combination  smooth-plane. 


78.  A   Circular-Plane  has  a  thin  steel  face,  straight  when 

free,  but  capable  of  having  its  ends  thrust 
down  or  drawn  up,  thus  making  the 
face  concave  or  convex,  and  adapting  it 
to  work  on  an  outside  or  an  inside  curve. 
Fig.  98  shows  a  Bailey's  adjustable  cir- 
cular-plane. 

79.  Block-Planes  are  small,  and  are  intended  for  use  chiefly 
on  end  grain.      They  generally  have  a  single   inverted  iron, 
which  turns  the  shaving  on  the  bevel  irig.  90 
instead   of  on   the    face    of   the    iron. 

They  have  many  different  forms,  from 

among  which  Fig.  99  has  been  selected 

as  a  type.      In  this  plane   the  throat  may  be   made  narrow 

or  wide  as  is  desired  ;    the  adjustment  is  controlled  by  the 

screw  A. 

80.  Spokeshaves  have  the  action 
of  planes,  but  are  not  usually  classi- 
fied with  them.  A  simple  form  is 
shown  by  Fig.  100.  By  the  cross-sec- 
tion it  will  be  seen  that  it  has  almost 
no  guiding  surface  corresponding  to 
the  face  of  a  plane.  This  feature 
adapts  it  to  work  of  irregular  outline. 

81.  Rabbeting-Planes  have  narrow  stocks.  The  cutting 
edge  is  set  in  the  face  of  the  plane  obliquely,  and  the  iron  is 
wide  enough  to  extend  beyond  the  sides  of  the  stock,  as  shown 


BENCH  WORK  IN  WOOD. 


Fig.  101 


by  Fig.  101.     Rabbeting.-planes  are  designed  for  use  in  intenoi 
angles,  as  Imk,  Fig.    146.      The  oblique  position  of  the  iron 
produces   a   shearing    cut   which   pro- 
motes smoothness  in  action. 

The  shaving  of  the  rabbeting-plane 
instead  of  passing  through  the  stock  is 
turned  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  dis- 
charged from  one  side ;  an  arrange- 
ment common  to  matching-planes,  beading-planes,  molding- 
planes,  and  plows  (§2,  83,  84,  and  85). 

82.    Matching-Planes  are  used  to   form   a   tongue  and  a 
groove,  as  shown  respectively  by  a  and  b,  Fig.  102. 

Wooden   matching-planes,    Fig.    102,    are        Vi^  102 
sold  in  pairs,  one  plane  being  fitted  with  a     A 
single  cutting  edge,  to  form  the  groove,  the 
other  with  a  double  cutting  edge,  to  form  the 
tongue.      Both  are  guided  by  the  "  fence  "  j 

C,  which  moves  in  contact  with  the  working 
face   of    the    piece    operated    upon.       The   c*-nj 
groove  and  the  tongue  should  both  be  car- 
ried to  as  great  a  depth  as  the   plane  will 
cut. 

An  iron  matching-plane,  designed  to  serve 
the  purpose  of  the  two  wooden  ones,  is  now  in  general  use. 
Its  fence  is  pivoted  to  the  face  in  such  a  way  that  it  can  be 
turned  end  for  end;  in  one  position  two  cutters  are  exposed 
Fig.  IDS     and  the  plane   is  adjusted  to   form  the  tongue  ; 
U    when  its  position  is  reversed,  the  fence  covers  one 
of  the  cutting  edges,  and  puts  the  plane  in  shape 
*    for  making  the  groove. 

The  size  of  matching-planes  is  indicated  by  the 
thickness  of  the  material  they  are  intended  to 
V-v      VJ    match. 


ft»NU«l 


BENCH 


51 


\a-e>* 

83.  Hollow  and  Round  are  te 

as  are  shown  by  A  and  B,  Fig.  103.  They  are  used,  as  their 
forms  suggest,  in  producing  hollows  and  in  rounding  projecting 
edges.  Their  size  is  indicated  by  a  number,  or  by  the  width  of 
the  cutting  edge. 

84.  Beading-Planes  are  used  in  forming  beads  (220),  and 
they  may  be  single  or  double,  that  is,  form  one  or  two   iris.  104 
beads  at  a  time.     For  beading  on  the  edge  of  work, 

they  are  provided  with  a  fence,  A,  Fig.  104.     For 

use  away  from  the  edge,  they  are  made  to  form  three 

or  more  beads  at  the  same  time,  and  have 

* no  guide,  in  which  case  they  are  known  as 

reeding- planes,  Fig.  105.  The  first  three 
r*  »U  beads  are  made  with  the  plane  guided  by  a  straight- 
edge temporarily  fastened  to  the  surface  of  the  work  ; 
the  remainder  are  formed  by  using  those  already 
made  as  a  guide,  the  plane  being  moved  into  new 
work  at  the  rate  of  only  one  bead  at  a  time.  Other 
beading-planes,  more  complicated  than  those  described,  are  con- 
structed on  much  the  same  principle  as  a  plow.  The  size  of  a 
beading-plane  is  indicated  by  the  width  of  the  bead  it  will  form. 

85.  Plows  are  used  in  making  rectangular  slots  or  "  plows  " 
of  any  width,  depth,  and  distance  from  the  working-edge  of 
the  material.     The  width  of  the  cut  is 

ordinarily  determined  by  the  width  of 
the  iron  used.  A  set  of  irons  is  sup- 
plied with  the  tool,  which  is  shown  by 
Fig.  1 06.  A  plow  wider  than  the 
widest  iron  can,  of  course,  be  made 
by  going  over  the  work  a  second  time. 
The  depth  of  the  cut  is  regulated  by 
a  little  shoe  (not  shown),  which  is  raised  or  lowered  by  the 
screw  A.  When  this  is  adjusted,  the  tool  can  be  used  until 


52  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

the  lower  surface  of  the  shoe  comes  in  contact  with  the  face 
of  the  work,  after  which  the  cutting  ceases.  Care  should  be 
taken  that  the  full  depth  is  reached  at  all  points  along  the 
length  of  the  work.  The  distance  between  the  groove  and  the 
working-edge  is  regulated  by  the  fence  B,  which  is  adjusted 
by  nuts  C  acting  on  the  screws  D.  When  ready  for  use,  the 
fence  should  be  parallel  to  the  narrow  iron  face-piece  E. 

86.  Combination  Planes  which  may  be  used  in  place  of  the 
plow,  beading-plane,  rabbeting-plane,  etc.,  are   found  on  the 
market,  and  many  of  them  are  serviceable  tools. 

87.  Scrapers.  —  Hand-scrapers  are  made  of  saw-plate  —  ma- 

-.  IOT  terial  of  about  the  thickness  of  a  panel- 

saw  blade,  and  having  the  same  degree  of 
hardness.  They  are  usually  rectangular, 
and  about  4"  X  5",  but  may  be  of  almost 
any  size  and  shape.  The  cutting  edge  is 
most  easily  formed  by  the  production  of 
a  surface  at  right  angles  to  the  sides, 
as  indicated  by  af>,  Fig.  107,  thus  giving 
two  cutting  angles,  cef  and  dfe.  When  a  more 
acute  cutting  edge  is  desired,  the  form  shown  by 
Fig.  1 08  may  be  adopted ;  but,  as  a  rule,  there 
is  little  gained  by  the  keener  cutting  edge,  and 
double  the  labor  is  required  to  keep  it  sharp. 
Scrapers  are  sharpened  by  filing  or  grinding.  If 
smooth  work  is  to  be  done,  the  roughness  of  the 
edge  may  be  removed  on  an  oilstone,  but  the 
rougher  edge  will  cut  faster  and,  generally,  will 
be  more  satisfactory. 

j.  100  Fig.   109  shows   a  scraper  mounted  some- 

what like  a  plane.  The  scraper  blade  A,  by 
means  of  the  two  nuts  B,  B,  may  be  changed 
from  a  position  inclined  to  the  face,  as  shown, 
to  one  perpendicular  to  the  face. 


BENCH  TOOLS.  53 

BORING  TOOLS. 

88.    Augers.  —  Fig.   no  shows  a  double-twist  spur  auger, 
a  form  generally  used  by  carpenters.  Fig  llo 

They  are  made  in  sizes  varying  from  0 

^"  to  4"  (in  diameter),  but   are   not     yyv^y-  ,  H 

much  used  below  i".     The   spur  A, 
Fig.  in,  is  in  the  form  of  a  tapered 

screw,  which,  besides  centering  the  auger  in  its  motion,  draws  or 
"feeds"  it  into  the  work.  The  two  nibs  B,  B  score  the  work, 
and  the  lips  C,  C  cut  and  remove  the  shavings,  which  are  carried 

Fig. Ill 


B* 

to  the  surface  by  the  screw-like  action  of  the  body  of  the  tool. 

Fig.   112  shows  part  of  a  single-twist  auger  which,  as  will 

be  seen,  has  but  a  single  nib  B,  and  a  single  cutting  lip  C. 

The  cuttings  are  thrown  into  the  center  of  the  hole,  and  de- 

JFig.  112 


livered  easily  by  this  auger,  and,  in  this  respect,  it  is  superior 

to  the  double-twist,  which  crowds  the  cuttings  to  the  outside 

of  the  hole,  where  they  are  likely  to  become  jammed  between 

the  tool  and  the  work.     This  characteristic  of  the  single-twist 

auger  particularly  adapts 

it  to  the  boring  of  deep      ^^^.^  Vifs' 11B 

holes.    "  Ship  augers  "  are 

of   this   kind,   and   have 

handles  like  the  one  shown  by  Fig.  113.     This  form  of  handle 


if 


54  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

has  the  advantage  of  allowing  the  use  of  both  hands,  without  the 
interruption  experienced  in  using  the  one  illustrated  by  Fig.  no. 
Augers  are  seldom  required  by  the  bench-worker,  but  are 
presented  here  because  of  their  relation  to  other  boring  tools. 

89.  Auger-Bits. — The  auger-bit  most  in  use  is  shown  by 
Fig.  114.     It  is  sold  in  sets  of  thirteen  bits  each,  varying  in 

size  by  sixteenths,  from  \" 
to  i".  Each  bit  is  marked 
by  a  small  figure  on  the 
shank,  which  indicates  its 
size  in  the  scale  of  sixteenths.  Thus  the  figure  9  is  to  be  inter- 
preted as  -fa". 

90.  Augers  and  auger-bits  are  sharpened  by  filing.     The 
scoring  nib  B,  Figs,  in  and  112,  which  is  usually  the  first  part 
to  become  dull,  should  be  filed  wholly  from  the  inside.     If 
filed  on  the  outside,  the  diameter  of  the  cut  it  makes  will  be 
smaller  than  that  of  the  body  of  the  bit.     The  cutting  lip   C 
should  be  sharpened  from  the  lower  side,  the  file  being  inclined 
to  preserve  the  original  angle.     With  the  spur  in  good  order, 
whenever  the  tool  refuses  to  "  feed,"  it  is  clear  that  the  bit 
needs  sharpening  somewhere. 

91.  Center-Bits  are  convenient  for  boring   holes   of  large 
diameter  in  delicate  material,  such  as  would  be  likely  to  split 
under  the  action  of  an  auger-bit.     By  reference  to  Fig.  115,  it 

will  be  seen  that  the  spur  A, 
B  "__ ___  _  which  centers  the  bit  in  the 

\vork,  is  triangular  in  section. 

This  form  allows  the  bit  to  feed 
rapidly,  or  very  slowly,  in  accordance  with  the  degree  of  pres- 
sure applied  to  it.  The  point,  or  "nib,"  B  cuts  the  fibers  about 
the  proposed  hole,  and  the  cutting  lip  C  removes  the  material. 
The  center-bit  does  not  work  well  in  end  grain.  When  dull  it 
may  easily  be  sharpened  by  whetting. 


BENCH    TOOLS. 


55 


92.  Expansive   Bits   are  so  constructed  as  to  be  adjust- 
able for  holes  of  any  size,  within  certain  limits.     There  are 
several   forms   in  use,  one   of  which   is   shown  by  Fig.   116. 
This,   without   the  FiSm  11G 

movable  cutter  C, 
will  bore  a  hole 
f "  in  diameter,  the 
screw  A  centering 
and  feeding  it  into  the  work,  B  scoring,  and  a  cutting  lip  in 
advance  of  B  (not  shown)  removing  the  shavings.  When  C  is 
inserted  as  shown  in  the  figure,  in  addition  to  the  action  just 
described,  there  is  a  supplementary  action  on  the  part  of  C,  its 
nib,  B',  scoring,  and  its  cutting  edge  removing  the  chips.  The 
cutter  C  is  held  in  place  by  the  screw  Z>.  By  loosening  D,  C 
may  be  moved  from  or  towards  the  center  of  the  bit,  or  taken 
out  altogether,  and  replaced  by  a  cutter  of  different  length.  By 
using  a  short  cutter  in  the  place  of  C,  a  hole  of  any  diameter 
from  f "  to  2"  may  be  bored,  and  with  the  cutter  shown,  any 
hole  from  2"  to  3"  may  be  bored.  The  range  of  the  bit,  there- 
fore, is  from  f "  to  3". 

93.  Small  Bits.  —  Bits  for  boring  holes  less  than  \"  in  diam- 
eter are  of  many  forms,  but  by  far  the  most  satisfactory  is  the 

"quill "  bit  shown  by  Fig. 

Fis-11T  117.     It  has  no  delicate 

parts ;  if  carefully  handled 
it  will  not  split  the  mate- 
rial ;  it  enters  the  work  rapidly,  makes  a  round,  smooth  hole, 
and  when  dull  can  easily  be  sharpened  by  whetting  or  grind- 
ing. It  will  not,  however,  work  with  the  grain.  Quill  bits  as 
small  as  Ty  in  diameter  are  in  common  use. 

Gimlet-bits  are  illustrated  by  Fig.  118,  which  represents  one 
of  the  best  forms.    Most 
bits  of  this  class  are  too 
weak  to  render  the  ser- 


Fig.  118 


56  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

vice  expected  of  them,  and  soon  become  bent  or  broken.    They 
are  likely  to  split  the  work  and  are  not  easily  sharpened. 

94.  Bit-Braces. — The  well-made  wooden  brace,  which  for 
a  long  time  ornamented  the  walls  of  the  cabinet-maker's  shop, 
has  disappeared,  and  the  lighter  and  more  convenient  iron 
brace  is  used  in  its  stead.  A  simple  form  of  iron  brace  is  rep- 
resented by  Fig.  119.  To  insert  a  bit,  grasp  the  sleeve  A  and, 
holding  it  firmly,  turn  the  brace  out  by  using  the  other  hand  on 
B.  When  the  jaws,  C,  are  opened  sufficiently  to  admit  the  bit 
shank,  put  it  in  place,  reverse  the  motion  of  the  hand  on  B,  and 
the  bit  will  be  fastened. 

Fig.  118 


A  ratchet  brace  is  shown  by  Fig.  120.  Its  office  is  to  turn 
the  bit  forward  while  the  brace  itself,  instead  of  making  a  com- 
plete revolution,  has  only  a  forward  and  backward  movement. 
As  represented  by  the  section  AB,  the  frame  c  is  fastened  to 
the  body  of  the  brace  of  which  it  becomes  a  part,  d  is  a  spindle 
which  terminates  in  the  socket  e,  and  f  is  a  ratchet-wheel, 
which  is  fastened  to  d.  On  each  side  of  the  ratchet-wheel  there 
is  a  pawl  which,  when  free  to  move  in  response  to  the  action  of 
a  spring,  engages  the  notches  in  the  ratchet-wheel  /.  With  the 
pawls  thus  engaged,  the  brace  may  be  used  in  precisely  the  same 
way  as  the  one  already  described.  But,  by  turning  the  ring 
^,  one  of  the  pawls  is  disengaged,  and  the  other  acting  alone 


BENCH  TOOLS.  57 

will  move  the  spindle  d  only  when  the  brace  is  moving  in  one 
direction,  the  pawl  simply  slipping  over  the  notches  of  the 
ratchet-wheel  when  the  motion  is  reversed.  In  this  way,  a 
bit  may  be  driven  to  any  depth  although  each  movement  of 
the  brace  may  be  less  than  half  of  a  complete  turn.  By  a 
proper  movement  of  the  ring  g,  the  motion  of  the  bit  may  be 
reversed.  , 

Fig.  130 


The  ratchet-brace  is  useful  in  boring  holes  near  walls,  or  in 
corners  where  it  is  impossible  to  turn  a  common  brace. 

The  size  of  any  brace  is  indicated  by  its  "  swing,"  that  is, 
by  the  diameter  of  the  circle  described  by  £,  Fig.  119.  The 
better  class  are  nickel-plated,  and  are  thereby  prevented  from 
rusting. 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


95.   A  "Universal,  Angular,  Bit-Stock,"  such  as  is  repre- 
sented by  Fig.  121,  is,  for  many  purposes,  more  useful  than 


Fig.  121 


the  ratchet-brace.  The  bit  is  inserted  at  A,  and  a  common 
brace  is  applied  at  C.  The  mechanical  arrangement  of  the 
parts  is  such,  that,  when  the  brace  turns  the  spindle  C,  the  part 
A  which  holds  the  bit  is  also  turned,  notwithstanding  the  in- 
clination of  one  part  to  the  other.1  Compared  with  the  ratchet- 
brace,  this  has  the  advantage  of  producing  a  continuous  motion 
of  the  bit.  By  its  use  a  hole  may  be  bored  in  the  corner  as 
easily  as  in  the  middle  of  a  room. 

The  angle  of  the  joint  may  be  changed  from  that  shown  to 
one  of  1 80  degrees,  by  an  adjustment  at  D. 

96.   Automatic  Boring  Tool. — A  convenient  substitute  for 
a  brad-awl  is  represented  by  Fig.  122.     The  drill,  or  bit,  A  is 


1  Considered  as  a  mechanical  movement,  this  is  known  as  Hooke's  joint. 


BENCH    TOOLS.  59 

held  in  a  suitable  chuck  C,  at  the  end  of  the  bar  D,  which 
runs  in  B,  The  drill  is  brought  into  contact  with  the  work, 
and  pressure  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow,  slides  B  down  upon 
D,  and  this  movement  causes  D  with  the  drill  to  revolve.  The 
full  extent  of  the  movement  having  been  reached,  a  relaxing  of 
pressure  leaves  D  free  to  return  to  its  first  position,  as  shown, 
the  rotary  motion  of  A,  meanwhile,  being  reversed.  These 
impulses  can  be  imparted  to  the  drill  with  great  rapidity,  and 
the  work  is  quickly  done.  The  dots  below  the  figure,  122, 
indicate  the  full  diameter  of  the  different  drills  which  are  fur- 
nished with  the  tool. 

MISCELLANEOUS  TOOLS. 

97.  Winding-Sticks,  or  "parallel  strips,"  are  wooden  strips 
of  any  convenient  length,  the  edges  of  which  are  straight  and 
parallel.     When  applied  to  a  surface,  they  increase  its  breadth 
in  effect,  and  by  thus  giving  a  better  opportunity  of  compari- 
son, show  whether  the  surface  is  "  in  wind,"  or  twisted.     For 
an  illustration  of  their  use,  see  75. 

98.  Hand  Screw-Drivers  are  in  form  similar  to  that  shown 
by  Fig.  123.     The  part  which  is  to  engage  the  screw  should 
have  parallel  sides,  as  shown  by  Fig.  1 24,  and  never  be  wedge- 

K'ig.  1S4 

I 
Fig.  133 


shaped,  Fig.  125.  In  the  latter  case,  it  will  be  seen  that  force 
applied  in  an  attempt  to  turn  a  screw,  will  have  a  tendency 
toward  lifting  the  screw- driver  from  its  place. 

A  set  of  three  or  four  screw-drivers,  having  blades  varying  in 


6O  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

size  to  suit  different-sized  screws,  so  that  a  fairly  good  fit  may 
always  be  made,  are  indispensable  to  good  work  where  screws 
are  much  used. 

Fig.  125 

99.  Brace  Screw-Drivers,  instead  of  having 
wooden  handles,  are  provided  with  shanks  for 
use  in  a  brace.  A  good  form  is  shown  by 
Fig.  126.  The  brace  gives  a  continuous  mo- 
tion, and 

Fig.  136 

the  screw 

may     be 

set  much  more  rapidly  by 
its  use  than  with  the  hand  screw-driver.    There  are  many  cases, 
however,  in  which  a  brace  is  useless. 

100.  Hammers. — Fig.  127  shows  a  carpenter's  hammer.  The 
head  A  is  wholly  of  steel.  The  face  B  is  hardened  so  as  not 
to  be  injured  by  repeated  blows  upon  the  nail,  which  is  com- 
paratively soft,  but  the  idea  prevailing  among  inexperienced 
workmen,  that  the  hammer  is  indestructible,  is  a  false  one. 
When  two  bodies  are  brought  together  forcibly,  as  a  hammer 


Fig.  isr 


and  a  nail,  the  softer  body  yields,  and  a  change  takes  place  in 
its  form.  If  the  nail  were  harder  than  the  hammer,  it  would  not 
be  injured,  but  the  hammer  would  show  an  impression  of  the 
nail  head.  Careless  or  ignorant  workmen  sometimes  take  an 


BENCH    TOOLS.  6 1 

old  file  for  a  punch  or  a  nail-set,  and  use  a  hammer  upon  it. 
The  file  is  harder  than  the  hammer,  and  the  result  is  that  the 
face  of  the  latter  is  badly  scarred. 

The  claw  C  makes  the  hammer  a  very  effective  tool  for 
withdrawing  nails. 

Hammers  vary  in  size  from  seven  to  twenty  ounces ;  the 
bench-worker  usually  employs  one  weighing  from  fourteen  to 
sixteen  ounces. 

101.  The  Hatchet  is  a  useful  tool  for  bringing  large  pieces 
of  material  to  size  roughly,  and  in  skillful  hands  it  may  be 
used  with  accuracy  as  well  as  effect.  When  it  is  compared 
with  the  hammer,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  blade  C,  Fig.  128,  takes 

B 
I 

Pig.  128 


the  place  of  the  claw  C,  Fig.  127.  As  an  instrument  for  driv- 
ing nails  it  is  clumsy,  and  the  opening  d,  for  withdrawing  nails, 
amounts  to  but  little.  In  sharpening,  the  hatchet  is  ground  on 
both  sides  of  the  blade,  and  whetted  on  an  oilstone. 

102.  Mallets. — The  difference  in  effect  between  a  blow 
given  by  a  hammer  and  one  given  by  a  mallet  is  so  great  that, 
although  similar  in  many  respects,  the  two  tools  are  adapted  to 
widely  different  uses.  A  blow  from  a  hard,  elastic  hammer  is 
sharp  and  decisive,  and  its  force  is  absorbed  almost  as  soon  as 
it  is  received.  Comparatively  speaking,  therefore,  its  effect 
must  be  local.  If  such  a  blow  is  received  on  a  chisel  handle, 
for  example,  a  large  part  of  its  force  is  wasted  in  affecting  the 


62  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

handle,  a  part  only  being  transmitted  through  the  handle  to 
the  cutting  edge,  the  only  place  where  it  can  be  of  use.  A 
blow  from  a  soft,  less  elastic  mallet,  on  the  contrary,  is  more 
general  in  its  effect.  Much  of  the  force  remains  for  an  instant 
stored  in  the  mallet,  by  which  it  is  given  out  somewhat  grad- 
ually, allowing  time  for  the  impulse  to  pass  beyond  the  point 
where  it  is  received.  The  effect  of  two  different  explosive 
agents  will  serve  as  an  illustration.  As  compared  with  nitro- 
glycerine, powder  burns  slowly,  and,  when  put  into  a  rifle  barrel, 
gradually  develops  its  force  upon  the  bullet  until,  when  the  lat- 
ter reaches  the  end  of  the  barrel,  it  has  gained  velocity  enough 
to  carry  it  a  mile  or  more.  But  if  a  charge  of  nitro-glycerine, 


•Fig.  130 


having  a  total  explosive  force  no  greater  than  that  of  the  pow- 
der, be  substituted,  the  result  will  be  very  different.  The  rapid- 
ity with  which  nitro-glycerine  burns  —  the  suddenness  of  the 
impulse  —  is  such  that,  before  the  bullet  can  respond  to  its  influ- 
ence, the  breach  of  the  barrel  is  destroyed. 

The  blow  of  a  mallet  on  a  chisel  resembles  the  action  of 
powder  on  a  bullet.  It  is  a  pushing  action,  and,  in  this  respect, 
is  unlike  that  of  the  hammer.  A  chisel,  therefore,  will  be 
driven  deeper  into  the  work  by  a  blow  from  a  mallet  than  by 
one  of  the  same  force  from  a  hammer,  while  a  chisel  handle 
which  has  withstood  blows  from  a  mallet  for  years,  may  be 
shattered  in  a  single  hour  by  use  under  a  hammer. 

An  excellent  form  of  mallet  is  shown  by  Fig.  129. 


BENCH  TOOLS.  63 

103.  Sand-Paper  is  neither  a  tool  nor  an  appliance,  strictly 
speaking,  but,  on  account  of  its  tool-like  action,  it  should  be 
mentioned  with  them.    The  "sand"  used  in  making  sand-paper 
is  crushed  quartz,  and  is  very  hard,  angular,  and  sharp.     It  is 
graded  as  to  degree  of  coarseness,  by  precipitation,  and  then 
glued  to  paper.    The  finest  sand-paper  is  marked  oo,  from  which 
the  gradations  run  o,  £,  i,  i£,  2,  2^,  and  3,  which  is  the  coarsest. 

104.  Miter-Boxes  are  useful  in  cutting  the  ends   of  light 
strips  of  wood  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees ;  they  are  frequently 
adapted  to  cutting  at  other  angles.     When  of  wood,  like  the 
one  represented   by  Fig.  219,  they  are  usually  made  by  the 
workman  himself. 

A  wooden  miter- box  is  composed  of  three  pieces  —  a  bot- 
tom and  two  sides.  It  is  necessary  that  the  bottom  piece 
be  uniform  in  width  and  thickness,  and  have  jointed  edges,  and 
it  is  well  to  prepare  the  other  pieces  in  the  same  way.  After 
the  box  is  nailed,  the  sides  should  be  square  with  the  outside 
face  of  the  bottom  piece ;  this  surface  may  now  be  used  as 
a  working-face.  Lay  off  across  the  working-face  two  lines  at  a 
distance  apart  equal  to  the  width  of  the  face,  thus  forming  with 
the  outside  edges  of  the  box,  a  square.  The  diagonals  of  this 
square  will  represent  the  two  oblique  cuts,  one  marked  c,  and 
the  one  taken  by  the  saw,  Fig.  219.  Project  up  the  sides  such 
lines  from  the  points  thus  fixed,  as  will  be  useful  in  making  the 
cuts ;  the  sawing  is  then  done  with  the  back-saw.  No  special 
directions  are  required  for  laying  off  the  cut  d. 

105.  Iron  Miter-Boxes  are       ,^_    B  Fig.  iso 
now  in  general  use.     The  ac- 
curacy with  which  work  may 

be  done  by  the  use  of  one 
will  more  than  compensate  any 
bench-worker  for  the  money 
invested  in  it.  Fig.  130  may  be  taken  as  a  type  ;  the  work  A 


64  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

is  supported  by  the  frame  as  shown,  while  the  proper  position  of 
the  saw  is  maintained  by  the  uprights  B,  which,  in  the  sawing 
process,  slide  down  into  the  standards  C.  The  saw  may  be  set 
at  any  angle  with  the  back  of  the  box  D,  by  swinging  the  frame 
E,  which  supports  the  standards  C ;  E  is  held  in  position  by  a 
suitable  fastening  operated  by  F. 

1 06.  Bench  Clamps  are  useful  in  holding  two  or  more  pieces 
of  material  together  temporarily.  They  are  particularly  valu- 
able for  keeping  pieces  that  have  been  glued,  in  place  until  they 
are  dry. 

Wooden  clamps,  or  hand-screws,  are  of  the  form  shown  by 
Fig.  131.  The  whole  length  of  the  jaws,  AB  and  A'B',  may 
be  made  to  bear  evenly  upon  the  work,  or  to  bear  harder  at 
certain  points,  as  AA'  or  BB'. 

Iron  clamps  are  illustrated  by  Fig.  132,  but  the  mechanical 
arrangement  differs  in  different  makes.  Such  clamps  are  very 

Fig.  13S 


useful  in  many  kinds  of  work,  but,  all  things  considered,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  they  are  as  serviceable  to  the  bench-worker 
as  the  wooden  ones  just  described. 

107.  Grindstones  are  selected  with  reference  to  their  "  grit." 
A  coarse,  soft-grit  stone  will  remove  material  much  more  rap- 
idly than  one  of  finer  grit,  but  the  surface  produced  will  be 
very  rough  compared  with  that  produced  by  the  other.  Thus, 


BENCH    TOOLS.  65 

when  it  is  necessary  to  remove  material  for  the  purpose  of  giv- 
ing shape  to  a  casting  or  forging,  the  coarse,  soft-grit  stone  is 
better ;  but  if  a  smooth  cutting  edge  is  required,  one  of  fine 
grit  should  be  used.  For  wood-working  tools,  a  stone  rather 
fine  and  soft  is  found  best.  The  speed  of  a  power  grindstone 
must  vary  from  500  to  1000  circumferential  feet  a  minute,  de- 
pending upon  its  diameter,  and  the  accuracy  and  steadiness 
with  which  it  runs.  It  may  not  be  well  to  run  a  20"  stone 
beyond  the  minimum  limit,  while  one  of  4'  or  5'  may  give  good 
results  if  run  beyond  the  maximum.  As  a  rule,  a  stone  for 
tool-grinding  is  at  its  maximum  speed  when,  if  run  faster,  it 
would  throw  water  from  its  face. 

By  circumferential  speed  is  meant  the  speed  of  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  stone.  This  is  found  by  multiplying  the  diameter 
of  the  stone,  in  feet,  by  3.1416  (ratio  of  diameter  to  circum- 
ference) ,  which  will  give  the  circumference  of  the  stone,  in  feet, 
and  this  product  by  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute.1 

1  Example  /.  —  A  4'  stone  is  run  at  30  revolutions  a  minute;  what  is  its 
circumferential  speed? 

The  circumference  of  a  4'  stone  is 

4' X  3-1416=  12.56'. 

This  would  be  the  speed  of  the  stone  if  it  were  to  make  but  I  revolution 
per  minute ;   but,  since  it  makes  30  revolutions,  its  speed  is 
12.56'  X  30=  376.80'  or  377'  (nearly). 

Example  II.  —  It  is  desired  that  a  30"  stone  should  have  a  circumferen- 
tial speed  of  280'  per  minute.  How  many  revolutions  should  it  make? 

30"  =  2.5'. 
The  circumference  of  a  stone  2.5'  in  diameter  is 

2.5'  x  3-1416  =7.85'. 

This  would  be  the  speed  of  the  stone  if  it  were  to  make  I  revolution  per 
minute.  But  the  circumferential  speed  is  280'  per  minute,  and  therefore 
the  number  of  revolutions  made  must  be 

280'  -T-  7.85  =  36   (nearly). 


66  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

1 08.  Water  is  used  on  a  stone  as  a  means  of  carrying  off 
the  heat  resulting  from  friction  between  stone  and  tool ;  it  also 
washes  away  the  particles  of  stone  and  steel  that  come  from 
the  grinding,  and  which,  without  the  water,  would  fill  the  inter- 
stices between  the  cutting  points  of  the  stone,  and  make  the 
surface  so  smooth  as  to  be  useless. 

A  grindstone,  when  not  in  use,  should  not  stand  in  or  over 
water.  Water  softens  a  stone,  and  one  unequally  exposed  to 
moisture  will  be  found  softest  in  such  places  as  are  most 
exposed.  When  brought  into  use,  the  softer  parts  wear  away 
more  rapidly  than  the  others,  causing  the  stone  to  become  "  out 
of  round."  Water  is  best  supplied  from  a  tank,  or  from  service 
pipes,  so  arranged  that  it  may  be  shut  off  when  the  stone  is  not 
running,  the  drip-pan  under  the  stone  being  at  all  times  per- 
fectly drained.  After  every  precaution  has  been  taken,  the 
stone  will  in  time  become  untrue  and  need  attention. 

109.  To    True    a  Grindstone.  —  When   a  stone   becomes 
untrue,  or  the  outline  of  the  face,  which  should  be  slightly  con- 
vex, becomes  concave,  it  may  be  corrected  by  using  a  piece  of 
soft  iron  as  a  turning  tool,  the  stone  being  run  dry.    The  action 
of  the  tool  may  be  explained  as  follows  :  the  soft  iron  allows 
small  particles  of  the  stone  to  imbed  themselves  in  its  surface, 
from  which  position  they  act  against  the  revolving  stone,  and 
the  cutting  is  done  by  these  imbedded  particles  and  not  by  the 
iron.     The  latter  is  worn  in  the  process,  however,  and,  as  its 
cutting  surface  becomes  enlarged,  it  should  be  turned  to  bring 
a  new  angle  or  face  into  action.     This  operation  is  easily  per- 
formed by  using  a  piece  of  gas  pipe  (about  i")  for  a  turning  tool. 

no.  Truing  Devices  are  now  generally  attached  to  power 
grindstones.  They  are  of  several  forms,  of  which  that  shown 
by  Fig.  133  may  be  taken  as  an  example.  The  base  of  this  at- 
tachment is  secured  to  the  grindstone  frame  as  near  the  stone  as 
may  be  convenient.  A  is  a  hardened  steel  screw  which  revolves 


BENCH    TOOLS.  6/ 

freely  on  its  bearings  B.    The  frame  in  which  B  runs  is  pivoted 

at  C,  in  such  a  way  that  by  a  movement  of  the  hand-wheel 

D,  B  will  move  forward  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow.     By 

adjusting  the  hand-wheel  D,  A  is  brought  into  contact  with  the 

face  of  the  moving  stone,  and  at  once  Fio.  133 

begins  to  revolve.     The  action  of  its 

thread  would  move  it  endwise,  were 

it  not  prevented  by  its  bearings.    The 

effect  of  this  angular  advancement  of 

the  thread,  which   is  not  met  by  a 

corresponding   lateral    movement    of 

the  parts  in  contact,  is  a  shearing  cut  across  the  face  of  the 

stone.     When  the  screw  becomes  dull  it  may  be  softened  and 

recut. 

in.  Oilstones.  —  The  most  useful  of  all  oilstones  are 
found  near  Hot  Springs,  Arkansas.  They  are  divided  into  two 
classes,  known  to  the  trade  as  the  Arkansas  stone  and  the 
Washita  stone.  The  former  is  of  very  fine  grain,  appearing 
much  like  white  marble.  It  is  used  in  sharpening  the  most 
delicate  instruments,  and  produces  an  edge  of  remarkable 
keenness.  The  Washita  stone  is  much  coarser  in  grain,  with  a 
color  sometimes  almost  white,  but  more  frequently  shaded  by 
lines  of  a  reddish  cast.  It  cuts  with  rapidity,  and  with  much 
greater  delicacy  than  would  be  expected  of  so  coarse  a  stone. 
Probably  no  better  oilstone  exists  for  sharpening  wood-working 
and  similar  tools. 

112.  Oil  is  used  on  an  oilstone  for  the  same  reason  that 
water  is  used  on  a  grindstone.     To  be  serviceable,  it  should  be 
as  free  as  possible  from  all  tendency  to  become  thick  or  gummy. 
A  good  quality  of  sperin  oil,  or  even  lard  oil,  may  be  used  ;  olive 
oil  is  frequently  recommended. 

113.  Form  of  Oilstones.  —  It  is   evident  that  if  oilstones 
could  be  made  round,  and  mounted  like  grindstones,  they  could 


68  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

be  used  more  effectively  than  when  only  a  small  block  is  avail- 
able. The  reason  they  are  not  so  mounted  is  that,  in  their 
native  bed,  the  whetstone  layers  are  traversed  in  every  direction 
by  veins  of  hard  quartz,  which,  if  allowed  to  enter  into  a  finished 
stone,  would  destroy  the-  cutting  edge  of  any  tool  that  might 
be  applied  to  it.  It  is  so  uncommon  to  find  large  pieces  of 
whetstone  free  from  the  quartz,  that  disks  above  4"  or  5"  in 
diameter  can  be  afforded  only  by  those  to  whose  work  they  are 
indispensable. 

For  bench  purposes,  Washita  stones  are  about  i"  x  2"  x  7"  ; 
but  no  attempt  is  made  to  have  them 
of  any  uniform  size.    Such  a  stone,  when 
set  into  a  block  and  provided  with  a 
cover  to  keep  out  the  dust,  is  ready 
for  use.      See  Fig.    134.      Its   surface 
should  be  kept  as  nearly  as  possible  straight,  in  the  direction  of 
its  length,  and  should  never  be  hollowed  across  its  breadth. 
When  out  of  shape  it  must  be  trued. 

114.  Slips  of  Washita  stone  whose  cross-sections  are  round, 

square,  triangular,  etc.,  are    supplied 
Fig.  135  by  the  trade.      A  wedge-shaped    slip 

is  represented  by  Fig.  135  ;  it  is  a 
form  extremely  useful  to  the  bench- 
worker. 

115.  To  True  an  Oilstone,  mix  water  with  sharp  sand  until 
the  mixture  is  thin  enough  to  run.     Apply  a  quantity  of  this 
to  the  surface  of  a  flat  board  or  plank,  and,  with  the  face  that 
is  to  be  trued  in  contact  with  the  sand-covered  board,  move 
the  stone  about,  frequently  changing  the  direction  of  its  motion. 
Under  this  treatment,  the  surface  of  the  stone  will  be  evened 
up  rapidly.     If  the  sand  that  is  first  applied  becomes  dull,  it 
may  be  replaced  by  new. 


BENCH  TOOLS.  69 

Another,  and  usually  a  more  convenient  way,  consists  in  sub- 
stituting for  the  sand  a  sheet  of  sand-paper  tacked  over  the 
edge  of  the  board.  Coarse  paper  may  be  used  at  first,  and 
afterwards  a  finer  grade  selected  for  finishing  the  work. 


PART  II. 


BENCH    WORK.1 

116.  No  work  at  the  bench  (9-13)  is  more  important  than 
that  relating  to  the  location  and  production  of  lines.     Careless- 
ness or  want  of  skill  in  this  will  always  be  manifest  in  the  fin- 
ished work.     To  the  beginner  it  may  seem  monotonous,  and 
even  hard,  to  stand  at  the  bench  several  hours  before  turning 
a  shaving ;  but  he  must  understand  that  a  scratch  cannot  be 
called  a  line,  and  that  patience  and  accuracy  are  the  chief 
requisites  in  skillful  manipulation. 

117.  Location  of  Points  (14-17).  —  All  measurements  must 
begin  somewhere.    The  greater  the  number  of  points  from  which 
to  begin,  the  more  chances  there  are  for  mistakes.     Thus  in 


1  NOTE.  —  The  material,  or  "stock,"  needed  for  the  exercises  of  the 
course  should  be  straight-grained,  free  from  knots,  well-seasoned,  and 
machine-dressed.  A  good  quality  of  either  white  pine  or  yellow  poplar  is 
to  be  preferred.  Good  work  cannot  be  done  in  poor  material. 

By  easy  steps  the  operations  to  be  performed  become  more  and  more 
difficult.  The  student  should  not  advance  to  a  new  exercise  until  the  pre- 
ceding one  has  been  completed  in  a  good,  workman-like  manner.  A  fail- 
ure, unless  the  result  of  accident,  should  invariably  be  followed  by  another 
trial  of  the  exercise.  Otherwise,  a  careless  habit  is  encouraged. 

The  course  may  appear  brief,  but  experience  has  demonstrated  its  com- 
pleteness as  a  preparation  for  constructive  work  in  any  of  the  lines  to 
which  it  leads.  After  the  fifteen  exercises  have  been  finished,  if  time 
remains,  any  ordinary  piece  of  bench  work  may  be  undertaken. 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


measuring  from  E  to  F,  Fig.  136,  there  is  one  chance  for  a  mis- 
take.    If  G  is  located  by  measuring  from  F,  then  in  the  loca- 


tion  of  G  there  are  two  chances  for  a  mistake, — one  in  locating 
F,  another  in  locating  G ;  but  if  G  is  located  by  direct  meas- 
urement from  E,  there  is,  as  in  the  case  of  F,  but  one  chance 
of  error. 

In  locating  a  point  by  measuring  from  a  point  or  line  already 
fixed,  it  is  necessary  to  make  some  kind  of  mark  to  indicate 
the  distance.  Haste  in  such  work  frequently  results  in  a  mark 
similar  to  that  shown  at  E,  Fig.  136,  a  "point"  through  which 
a  line  may  be  drawn  with  ease  but  with  doubtful  accuracy.  A 
dot  from  a  sharp  pencil,  as  shown  at  F,  Fig.  136,  is  much 
better ;  but  if  by  reason  of  roughness  of  surface  such  a  dot  is 
too  indistinct,  two  lines  meeting  each  other  at  an  angle  may 
be  used,  G,  Fig.  136,  the  point  of  juncture  indicating  the 
required  location. 

118.  A  Jointed  Face  is  a  surface  that  has  been  made  a  true 
plane.     The  necessities  of  practice  so  often  require  jointed 
faces  at  right  angles  to  an  adjoining  face,  that  to  many  the 
term  has  come  to  mean  not  only  a  true  plane,  but  such  a  sur- 
face at  right  angles  to  another,  from  which  it  is  said  to  have 
been  "jointed." 

119.  A  Working-Face  is  one  selected  as  a  guide  for  opera- 
tions to  be  performed  on  an  adjoining  face.    For  accurate  work 
the  working-face  must  be  jointed.     At  this  face,  all  measure- 
ments have  their  beginning,  and  by  it  all  lines  are  produced.    If 
a  piece  of  material  is  to  receive  lines  on  two  opposite  sides,  as 
A  and  C,  Fig.  136,  either  B  or  D  may  be  used  as  a  working- 


BENCH    WORK.  73 

face,  but  not  both ;  if  it  is  to  receive  lines  on  four  faces,  as  A,  B, 
C,  and  D,  two  of  them,  as  A  and  B,  for  example,  must  be  work 
ing-faces ;  if  on  six  faces,  three  must  be  working- faces.  For 
example,  suppose  lines  are  to  be  made  on  the  surface  A,  Fig. 
136,  from  B  as  a  working-face ;  those  running  across  the  piece, 
as  ab,  will  then  be  made  perpendicular  to  B,  and  those  running 
lengthwise,  as  cd,  parallel  to  B.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  work- 
ing-face is  disregarded,  and  some  of  the  lines  are  made  from 
B  and  some  from  D,  their  truth  will  depend  not  only  on  the 
truth  of  B  and  D  as  individual  surfaces,  but  also  upon  their 
parallelism,  and  hence  there  is  a  double  chance  of  error.  Only 
one  face,  therefore,  should  be  used  from  which  to  do  the  lining 
for  a  given  surface.  If  lines  are  to  be  made  on  all  four  sides, 
as  A,  B,  C,  and  D,  and  A  and  B  are  the  working-faces,  all 
lines  on  A  and  C  can  be  made  from  B,  and  all  lines  on  B  and 
D  can  be  made  from  A.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  in 
making  a  piece  a  true  square  in  section,  it  is  necessary  to  use 
the  beam  of  the  square  on  only  two  faces. 

EXERCISE   No.  i.  — MEASURING  AND  LINING. 

1 20.  The  stock  required  is  if  inches  thick,  4  inches  wide, 
and  4  feet  long,  or,  as  usually  written,  if"  x  4"  X  4'.     Fig.  137 
shows  the  completed  exercise.1     To  aid  in  following  directions, 
it  will  be  well  to  letter  the  four  faces  of  the  work  A,  B,  C,  and 
D,  respectively,  as  indicated  by  Fig.  137  (End  Elevation),  and 
to  mark  two  of  them,  as  A  and  B,  working-faces. 

OPERATIONS  TO  BE  PERFORMED  ON   FACE  A,   FROM  B  AS  A 
WORKING- FACE,  FIG.  137. 

121.  Spacing  with  Pencil   and  Rule  (18).  —  By  use  of 
pencil  and  rule,  lay  off  points  a,  i"  apart  along  the  whole 

1  Fig.  137  is  broken  in  accordance  with  the  principles  given  in  6. 


74 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


length  of  the  piece,  the  line  of  points  being  kept  straight  by 
preserving  a  uniform  distance  between  them  and  the  working- 
face  B.  This  distance  may  be  anything  that  is  convenient, 
and  will  be  sufficiently  accurate  if  determined  by  the  eye. 


Fig.  13^ 
Scale,   2—l' 


aaaaaaaaa  \a    a    a    a    a 


gd 


Face  A. 


Working  Face  B. 


rking  Face  A. 


Face  B. 


END  ELEVATIC 


Face  D. 


\   Working  Face  A. 


Working  Face  B. . 


E 


/      " 

1-  ( 

)J 

> 

1- 

*-$  

\  —  > 

Face  C. 

122.  Cross-lining  with  Pencil  and  Framing-Square  (19- 
21 ).  —  The  points  having  been  located,  draw  through  each  a 
line,  as  ab  (Face  A),  using  the  framing-square  and  pencil. 


BENCH    WORK. 


75 


While  a  line  is  being  produced  by  the  outside  of  the  shorter 
leg  of  the  square  be,  Fig.  138,  allow  the  longer  leg  ab  to  drop 
down  so  that  its  inside  edge  may  be  firmly  pressed  against  the 
working-face,  as  indicated  by  the  arrows  d.  When  the  progress 


Fig.  138 


of  the  lining  causes  the  leg  ab  to  project  beyond  the  work  so 
much  as  to  be  imperfectly  guided  by  the  working- face,  as 
shown  at  a'b1,  Fig.  138,  its  position  should  be  reversed  as  indi- 
cated by  the  dotted  outline.  This  method  must  be  observed 
in  using  any  similar  tool,  as  the  try-square,  bevel,  etc. 

123.  Chalk-Lining  (36).  —  Lay  off  points  on  lines  ab  and 
ad  •£"  apart,  the  first  point  in  each  case  being  ^"  from  the 
working-face.  Through  the  points  thus  located,  chalk-lines  are 
to  be  made,  as  shown  by  face  A,  Fig.  137. 

Insert  the  awl  at  the  first  point  on  the  line  ab,  and  drawing 
the  cord  tight  with  one  hand,  apply  the  chalk  with  the  other, 


K"ig.  130 


beginning  at  the  awl.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  cake  of 
chalk  is  not  cut  to  pieces  by  the  cord.  A  little  practice  will 
make  it  easy  to  hold  the  cord  under  the  thumb  in  such  a  way 
as  to  form  a  small  shoulder  on  the  chalk,  Fig.  139,  which  by 


;6 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


the  friction  of  the  cord  will  be  gradually  carried  across  the  face 
of  the  cake ;  another  is  then  formed  to  take  its  place.  When 
the  cord  has  been  chalked,  stretch  it  over  the  point  on  the  line 


!Fig.  140 


ad  that  corresponds  to  the  point  on  the  line  ab  at  which  the 
awl  is  inserted.  Then  raise  the  cord  near  the  middle  as  shown 
by  Fig.  140,  and  by  suddenly  releasing  it,  cause  it  to  "  snap  " 
on  the  surface  of  the  work.  In  snapping,  the  cord  should  be 
drawn  up  vertically,  for  if  drawn  at  an  inclination  as  shown  by 
a,  Fig.  141,  a  wide  blurred  line  will 
be  produced.  Repeat  this  operation 
for  each  of  the  points,  finishing  face 
A  as  shown.  Each  line  should  be 
clear  and  well-defined.  Try  to  make 
each  one  better  than  the  preceding. 
Never  snap  more  than  once  be- 
tween the  same  points. 


Fig.  141 


OPERATIONS  TO  BE   PERFORMED  ON  FACE  B,   FROM  A  AS  A 
WORKING- FACE,  FIG.  137. 

124.  Lining  with  Pencil  and  Try-Square  (22). —  Hold 
the  beam  of  the  square  firmly  against  the  working-face,  and, 
using  the  outside  edge  of  the  blade  as  a  guide,  continue  across 
face  B  the  lines  on  the  working-face  which  were  made  by  use 
of  the  framing-square.  If  the  work  has  been  well  done,  the 
lines  will  be  sharp,  straight,  and  parallel,  as  shown  by  ab,  cd, 
etc.,  Face  B,  Fig.  137. 


BENCH    WORK. 


77 


125.  Lining  with  Pencil  and  Bevel  (23-25).  —  The  bevel 
is  to  be  set  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  and  the  lines  ag,  fg, 
etc.,  drawn  from  the  points  made  by  the  intersection  of  the 
lines  already  drawn  and  the  working- face,  Face  B,  Fig.   137. 
Let  the  beam  of  the  bevel  bear  firmly  on  the  working-face. 

126.  "Gauging"  Lines  with  Pencil  and  Rule.  —  These 
lines,  as  ik,  hi,  etc.,  are  to  be  spaced  \"  apart,  as  shown  by 
Face  B. 

Grasp  the  rule  at  a  proper  distance  from  its  end,  in  the  left 
hand,  and  press  the  forefinger  against  the  working-face,  to 
which  the  rule  is  perpendicular,  as  shown  by  Fig.  142.  With 
the  right  hand  apply  the  pencil  to  the  work,  and  at  the  same 
time  press  it  against  the  end  of  the  rule.  In  this  way,  the 
pencil  against  the  rule,  and  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand  against 
the  working-face,  move  along  the  length  of  the  work,  thus  pro- 
ducing a  line  parallel  to 
the  working-face.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  lay  off 
points,  since  the  distance 
between  the  pencil  and 
the  edge  can  always  be 
known  by  observing  the 
graduations  of  the  rule. 
In  making  a  line,  the 
pencil  will  be  more  easily 
kept  in  position  if  con- 
siderable force  is  used  in  pressing  it  against  the  rule ;  to 
prevent  this  force  from  displacing  the  rule,  it  must  be  met 
by  a  greater  force  acting  in  the  opposite  direction.  See  arrows 
c  and  d. 

This  is  a  rapid  method  of  producing  lines  parallel  to  the 
working-face,  where  exactness  is  not  demanded. 


Fig.  143 


/8  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

OPERATION  TO  BE  PERFORMED  ON  FACE  D  FROM  A  AS  A 
WORKING- FACE,  FIG.  137. 

127.  Spacing  by  Use  of  Scriber  (37)  and  Rule.  —  Points 
and  lines  made  with  a  pencil,  while  accurate  enough  for  many 
purposes,  are  too  inexact  to  define  the  proportions  of  different 
parts  of  a  joint.     Where  good  fitting  of  any  kind  is  required, 
the  pencil  should  not  be  used,  but   all   points  and   lines   be 
made  with  a  scriber.     The  scriber  should  be  sharp,  and  should 
make  a  clearly-defined  cut,  not  a  dent. 

Using  the  rule,  then,  to  determine  the  distances,  substitute 
the  scriber  for  the  pencil,  and,  following  the  dimensions  given 
(Face  D,  Fig.  137),  lay  off  points  along  the  length  of  the  work 
through  which  the  lines  ab,  cd,  etc.,  are  to  be  drawn. 

128.  Lining  with  Scriber  and  Try-Square.  —  Through  the 
points  already  placed,  scribe  lines,  as  ab,  cd,  etc.,  with  the  try- 
square. 

Care  must  be  taken  that  the  advancing  edge  of  the  scriber 
is  not  turned  out  from  the  square  blade ;  in  such  a  case, 
it  is  likely  to  "  run  out "  from  the  square  and  give  a  crooked 
line.  Neither  should  the  scriber  be  turned  in  so  much  as  to 
crowd  the  square  from  its  position.  After  a  little  practice,  lines 
can  be  scribed  easily  and  rapidly. 

129.  Lining  with  Scriber  and  Bevel.  —  Set  the  bevel  at  an 
angle  of  45  degrees  and,  using  it  as  before,  scribe  lines  from 
the  ends  of  the  try-square  lines,  as  shown  by  be,  ad,  etc. 

Fig.  143  jj  130.    Gauge-Lining    (32- 

35).  The  gauge  provides  the 
most  ready  means  for  the  ac- 
curate production  of  lines 
parallel  to  a  working-face. 
As  shown  in  Fig.  143,  the 
beam  of  the  gauge  B  carries 


BENCH    WORK.  79 

a  steel  spur  C,  which  does  the  marking.     B  also  carries  a 
head  D,  which  is  adjustable  on  the  beam. 

To  use  the  gauge,  adjust  the  head  so  that  the  distance  be- 
tween it  and  the  spur  C  is  equal  to  that  between  the  working- 
face  and  the  required  line ;  then  close  the  fingers  over  the 
head  and  extend  the  thumb  on  the  beam  towards  the  spur,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  143.  Holding  the  gauge  in  this  manner,  bring 
the  head  against  the  working- face,  move  the  gauge  along  the 
work,  and  the  line  will 
be  produced.  To  pre- 
vent the  spur  from  stick- 
ing, the  first  stroke 
should  make  a  light  line, 
which  may  be  strength- 
ened by  a  second,  and 
even  a  third  passing  of 
the  gauge.  The  depth  of  the  line  in  each  case  is  regulated  by 
turning  the  gauge  as  indicated  by  the  relative  position  of  Y 
and  X,  Fig.  144.  It  is  obvious  that  no  spacing  is  necessary 
when  this  tool  is  to  be  used. 

By  use  of  the  gauge,  lay  off  the  lines  fh,  eg,  etc.,  Face  D, 
Fig.  137- 


OPERATIONS  TO  BE   PERFORMED  ON   FACE    C,   FROM  B  AS  A 
WORKING- FACE,  FIG.  137. 

131.  The  lines  on  this  face  are  to  be  used  in  Exercise  No.  3. 
By  applying  the  principles  already  developed  (121,  122)  locate 
the  lines  as  shown  by  the  drawing,  Face  C,  Fig.  137.  This 
work  may  be  done  with  the  pencil,  the  lines  ab  and  a't>'  being 
"  gauged  "  by  use  of  the  rule  (126).  The  line  cd,  End  Eleva- 
tion, may  be  made  in  the  same  way. 


So 


BENCH   WORK    IN    WOOD. 


BENCH    WORK. 


8l 


EXERCISE   No.  2. 
PRACTICE  WITH   CHISEL  AND  GOUGE  (39,  40,  and  42). 

The  stock  required  is  |"  X  4?"  X  8"- 

Fig.  145  shows  the  lines  that  are  needed,  all  of  which  are 
produced  as  explained  in  the  foregoing  exercise,  except  the 
arcs  of  circles,  which  must  be  put  in  with  the  dividers  (26) ; 
A  and  B  are  working-faces.  An  end  elevation  of  the  finished 
piece  is  represented  by  Fig.  146. 


Fig.  14:7 


132.  To  remove  the  Portion  abc,  Fig.  145.  —  It  is  always 
best,  in  removing  surplus  wood  with  the  chisel,  to  cut  across 
the  grain,  as  any  attempt  to  carry  the  cutting  edge  along 
the  grain  is  quite  sure  to  result  in  a  splitting  action,  the 
chisel  following  the  grain  of  the  wood, 
which  splits  ahead  of  it,  and  pre- 
vents the  operator  from  controlling  its 
course.  In  removing  the  portion  abc, 
the  work  should  be  held  in  the  vise  with 
the  working-face  A  toward  the  operator. 
A  i"  chisel  will  be  found  of  convenient 
size.  Beginning  at  one  end,  make  suc- 
cessive cuts  with  the  chisel,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  147.  Each  stroke  of  the  chisel 
should  cut  almost  to  the  full  depth  re- 
quired (i.e.  remove  a  shaving  from  the 
face  of  nearly  the  whole  triangle  abc}, 
the  thickness  of  the  cutting  varying  with 
the  character  of  the  material  and  the 


82 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


strength  of  the  operator.  It  is  best,  however,  to  go  slowly,  for 
the  chisel  will  not  be  properly  guided  if  the  workman's  whole 
148  strength  is  required  to  push  it  through 

the  wood.  The  surface  thus  produced 
will  not  be  smooth,  but  it  will  be  true  to 
the  line.  To  smooth  it,  a  wide  chisel 
should  be  used,  as  shown  by  Fig.  148, 
and  a  longitudinal  movement  imparted 
to  it  at  the  same  time  it  is  being  pushed  forward. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  both  chisels  are  applied  to  the  work 
in  such  a  way  as  to  turn  the  shaving  from  the  bevel,  and  not 
from  the  flat  face.  This  is  done  that  the  flat  face  may  be  avail- 
able as  a  guiding  surface,  which,  when  kept  in  contact  with  the 
solid  material  back  of  the  cut  (see  b,  Fig.  148),  will  insure 
straightness  in  the  forward  movement  of  the  cutting  edge,  and, 
consequently,  accuracy  of  work. 

133.    To  remove  the  Portion  defg,  Fig.  145. — With  the 


•Fig.  140 


-n 


work  flat  on  the  bench,  face  A 
uppermost,  place  a  f "  chisel  so 
as  to  bring  its  cutting  edge  in 
the  position  occupied  by  the 
line  hi,  which  is  about  £"  from 
the  end  of  the  work.  With  the 
mallet,  drive  the  chisel  verti- 
cally downward,  as  indicated  by 
c,  Fig.  149.  When  down  to  the 
depth  of  the  required  cut,  the 
chisel  should  be  pushed  over  to 
the  position  a,  to  make  room 
for  the  next  cut,  after  which  it 
may  be  withdrawn  and  placed 
Section  A  B.  jn  pOS{tjon  agam  at  gt  This 

operation  is  to  be  repeated  until  the  whole  length  of  the  piece 


BENCH    WORK.  83 

has  been  passed  over,  making  the  work  appear  as  indicated,  in 
part,  by  Sec.  AB,  Fig.  149.  The  cuttings  may  then  be  re- 
moved. The  sides  of  the  opening  will  be  even  and  fairly 
smooth.  The  distance  the  chisel  is  advanced  (/)  must  de- 
pend on  the  material,  and  the  depth  to  which  it  is  driven ;  it 
should  never  be  so  great  as  to  risk  the  breaking  of  the  chisel 
when  it  is  moved  from  position  c  to  d. 

To  remove  the  portion  jkon,  Fig.  145.  —  Using  the  chisel  as 
in  the  last  exercise,  remove  the  portion  jklm,  and  afterwards 
the  portion  Imon. 

134.  To  remove  the  Portion  pqr,  Fig.  145.  —  This  is  done 
with  the  gouge,  which,  unlike  the  chisel,  may  be  used  with  the 
grain,  as  indicated  by  Fig.  1150,  the 

c     ,  ,        ,,  Fig.  150 

concave  surface  of  the  work  allow- 
ing its  individual  fibers  to  give 
greater  support  to  one  another  in 
resisting  a  splitting  tendency.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  bevel  of  the 
gouge  is  its  only  guiding  surface.  This  being  necessarily  short, 
the  tool  is  a  difficult  one  to  use.  Light  cuts  should  be  taken, 
especially  when  the  grain  of  the  wood  is  not  favorable. 

To  finish  Exercise  No.  2.  —  Round  the  part  between  the 
lines  fg  and  no,  and  also  the  part  between  the  point  m  and  the 
line  ks,  to  agree  with  the  finished  form  shown  by  Fig.  146,  and 
smooth  all  chiseled  surfaces  not  already  finished. 


EXERCISE   No.   3. —SAWING  (49-55). 

The  stock  required  is  the  finished  piece  from  Exercise 
No.  i ;  it  is  to  be  cut  as  indicated  by  the  lining  on  Face  C, 
Fig-  137- 

135.  Handling  the  Saw.  —  The  saw  should  be  grasped 
firmly  with  the  right  hand,  a  better  control  of  it  being  secured 


84 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


by  extending  the  forefinger  along  the  side  of  the  handle.  In 
starting  a  cut,  the  side  of  the  saw  should  be  pressed  against  the 
thumb  of  the  left  hand,  which  then  acts  as  a  guide,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  151.  The  saw  must  not  be  crowded  against  the  work, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  to  prevent  the  teeth  from  penetrating  too 
deeply,  its  forward  movement  should  be  accompanied  by  a  lift- 
ing action  of  the  wrist.  The  saw  should  always  be  moved  with 
a  long  stroke,  bringing  as  many  teeth  into  action  as  possible.  A 
short,  jerky  movement  is  at  no  time  necessary  or  desirable.  It 
is  good  practice  for  the  beginner  to  keep  up  the  proper  motion 
of  the  saw,  while  maintaining  a  very  light  contact  between  it 
and  the  work.  Success  in  this  exercise  is  to  be  measured  by 
uniformity  of  contact  throughout  all  points  of  the  stroke. 

There  are  two  errors  which  are  likely  to  be  made  in  sawing : 
first,  sawing  off  the  line;  and,  secondly,  sawing  at  a  wrong  angle. 


Kig.  151 


136.  To  guide  the  Saw.  —  If  the  saw  tends  to  run  off  the 
line,  the  blade  may  be  slightly  twisted  in  the  direction  it  ought 
to  take,  as  shown  by  Fig.  152.  It  will  immediately  respond  by 
a  change  in  its  course.  The  correction  should  be  made  as 
soon  as  the  error  is  discovered. 


BENCH    WORK. 


Kig.  153 


Fig. 


137.  To  correct  the  Angle  of  the  cut,  the  saw  should  be  bent, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  153,  and  at  the  same  time  moved  vertically, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  154,  instead  of  in  the  usual  direction,  which  is 
indicated  by  the  dotted  line  ab  in  the  same  figure. 

138.  Rip-sawing  on  the  line  ab  and  a'P,  Face  C,  Fig.  137. — 
Start  the  saw  on  the  lines  ab  and  cd  (the  latter  shown  in  End 

Elevation).  By  following 
the  first  line  the  proper 
direction  of  the  cut  will  be 
insured,  and  by  keeping 
on  the  second  the  piece 
will  be  cut  square  with  the 
working -face.  The  saw 
once  started,  the  truth  of 
the  angle  may  be  occasion- 
ally tested  by  the  try-square 
applied  as  shown  by  Fig. 
155.  Attention  given  to 
this  matter  at  first,  will 
soon  make  the  operator 
sufficiently  skillful  to  judge 
the  angle  accurately 
enough  for  most  work. 

After  cutting  on  the  line 
ab,  cut  also   on  the   line 

of**. 

In  sawing  a  piece  from 
one  end  to  the  other  in 
one  cut,  the  saw,  in  coming  out,  should  not 
be  allowed  to  injure  the  trestle.  This  danger 
may  be  met  by  slanting  the  board  so  that  it 

C.I.C.VM  i  tun. 

will  be  supported  by  one  corner,  thus  leav- 
ing an  open  space  between  the  trestle  and  the  point  where  the 
cut  will  end,  as  shown  by  Fig.  156. 


Fig.  15o 


86 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


139-  Cross-cutting  on  the  lines  ef  and^,  Face  C,  Fig.  137. 
—  Observe  the  general  directions  that  have  already  been  given. 

When  the  piece  that  is  being  cut  is  almost  divided,  there 
is  danger  that  the  uncut  portion  may  break  and  splinter.  This 
tendency  must  be  guarded  against  by  properly  supporting  the 
work,  either  by  the  hand  or  by  a  suitable  arrangement  of  the 
trestles. 

EXERCISE   No.  4.  — PLANING  (66-74). 

The  stock  required  is  the  pieces  resulting  from  Exercise 
No.  3. 

140.  In  grasping  a  plane,  there  is  always  shown  a  disposition 
to  place  the  thumb  of  the  left  hand  on  the  right  side  of  the 
plane.  This  should  not  be  done  ;  for,  as  will  be  seen  by  Fig.  157, 
when  the  plane  is  drawn  back,  the  arm,  by  contact  with  the 
body,  becomes  stiffened,  and  the  motion  of  the  plane  restricted. 
The  hand,  therefore,  should  be  so  turned  as  to  bring  the  thumb 
on  the  left  side,  as  shown  by  Fig.  158.  Held  in  this  manner, 
the  plane  may  be  easily  carried  well  forward  and  well  back. 

Fig.  157  TFig.lOS 


When  the  surface  of  the  work  is  large,  begin  to  plane  at  its 
right-hand  end.  With  a  series  of  easy  strokes  pass  across  the 
face  of  the  work,  then  step  forward  and  take  a  second  series  of 


BENCH    WORK.  8/ 

strokes,  and  so  on  until  the  whole  surface  has  been  passed  over. 
In  the  first  series  of  strokes  it  is  necessary  to  draw  the  plane  off 
the  work,  as  shown  by  Fig.  159.  In  doing  this,  sufficient 
pressure  must  be  exerted  in  the  direc- 

ITig.150 

tion  of  the  arrow  to   overcome   any 
tendency  to  tip,  as  indicated  by  the  J 

dotted  outline ;   in  the  last  series  of  jS^^r  ^^ 

strokes  the  wrist  may,  for  the  same 

reason,  be  rested  easily  on  the  back  of  the  plane.  To  make 
the  strokes  between  the  ends  properly,  the  plane  should  be 
lifted  so  that  the  shaving  may  be  finished  before  the  forward 
movement  of  the  plane  ceases.  The  plane  need  not  be  lifted 
bodily  from  the  work.  The  natural,  slightly-upward  move- 
ment of  the  arm  when  stretched  out,  as  shown  by  Fig.  160, 
will  accomplish  all  that  is  necessary. 

Fig.  160 


If  the  plane  is  allowed  full  contact  with  the  work  on  the 
backward  stroke,  a  dulling  effect  on  the  cutting  edge  is  pro- 
duced, especially  if  the  work  is  rough  and  gritty.  Under 
such  circumstances,  it  is  better  to  raise  the  plane  from  the 
work  entirely,  or  turn  it  on  its  edge,  or  draw  it  back  in  the 
position  shown  by  Fig.  160.  On  small,  clean  surfaces,  how- 
ever, it  is  best  to  disregard  this  caution,  since  sharpening 


88 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


takes  less  time  than  placing  the  plane  before  beginning  each 
stroke. 

In  planing   a   narrow  surface,  for  example,  the  edge  of  a 


ITig.  161 


board,  difficulty  in  keeping  the  plane 
on  the  work  may  be  overcome  by 
grasping  it  in  such  a  way  that  the 
fingers  of  the  left  hand,  while  press- 
ing against  the  face  of  the  plane,  may 
maintain  a  light  contact  with  the 
work,  as  shown  by  Fig.  161. 

141.  The  mouth  of  a  plane  sometimes  becomes  clogged, 
and,  as   a   result,  the  cutting   ceases.     This  may  be  caused 
by  a  dull  cutting  edge,  which  scrapes  off  fibers  which  it  can- 
not cut ;    or  by  the  low  set  of  the  cap  on  the  iron  ;  or  by  a 
bad  fit  between  cap  and  iron,  which  allows  a  shaving  to  find  its 
way  between  them,  thus  forming  an  obstruction  to  the  passage 
of  other  cuttings.     In  new  planes,  the  stoppage  may  be  due  to 
narrowness  of  the  mouth,  which  will  not  allow  a  thick  shaving 
to  pass.     It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  narrowness 
of  mouth  is  an  element  in  the  production  of  smooth  work,  and 
for  this  reason  the  opening  should  be  no  wider  than  is  abso- 
lutely necessary. 

To  preserve  the  face  of  the  plane,  apply  occasionally  a  few 
drops  of  lubricating  oil. 

142.  Jointing  the  sawed  edge  of  the  if"  X3"  X  16"  piece 
from  Exercise  No.  3,  to  finish  at  if"  X  2f"  X  16".     Set  the 

Fig.  163 


gauge  at  2|"  and  from  the  working-face  B,  Fig.  162,  gauge 


BENCH    WORK.  89 

lines  all  around  the  piece,  as  e/a.nd  bg.  Fasten  the  piece  in 
the  vise  with  the  sawed  edge  up ;  plane  nearly  to  line  with  the 
jack-plane  and  finish  with  the  fore-plane. 

143.  Planing  to  a  Square  each  of  the  four  if"  x  2"  x  16" 
pieces  from  Exercise  No.  3,  their  finished  size  to  be  if"  x  if" 
X  1 6".    Select  a  straight  face,  or,  if  none  is  exactly  right,  cor- 
rect the  best  and  mark  it  as  a  working-face.     Let  this  be  done 
on  each  of  the  four  pieces.     Suppose  Fig.  163  to     jrig.iea 
represent  an  end  of  one  of  the  pieces,  and  let  A 

be  its  working-face.  With  the  fore-plane,  joint  B 
from  A,  and  mark  B  as  a  second  working-face. 
Repeat  this  operation  on  each  of  the  other  pieces. 
Set  the  gauge  at  if"  (the  width  to  which  each  side  is  to  finish), 
and  from  the  working-face  A  gauge  a  line  on  B.  From  work- 
ing-face B  joint  C  to  line,  and  perform  this  operation  on  each 
remaining  piece.  From  B  as  a  working-face  with  the  gauge 
set  as  before,  produce  lines  on  A  and  C,  and  plane  D  to  these 
lines.  This  done,  the  four  pieces  should  be  of  the  same  size, 
and  true  squares  in  section. 

144.  Whenever  a  series  of  similar  operations  is  to  be  per- 
formed on  two  or  more  pieces,  the  method  developed  by  the 
foregoing  exercise  should  always  be  followed.     By  carrying  all 
the  pieces  along  together,  the  work  will  be  more  easily  and 
more  rapidly  accomplished  than  if  each  is  finished  as  a  separate 
piece. 

145.  Smooth   Surfaces  cannot  always  be   produced  by  a 
plane.     The  presence  of  knots  or  a  crooked  grain  causes  the 
work  to  split  in  advance  of  the  cutting  edge,  and  a  rough  sur- 
face results.     A  sharp  plane  set  to  take  a  fine  shaving,  will 
do  much  to  remedy  this  evil,  but  it  cannot  be  entirely  over- 
come.    Surfaces,  such  as  a  table  top  or  a  door  panel,  which 
are  not  required  to  be  true,  may  be  made  as  smooth  as  possible 


9O  .          BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

with  a  plane,  and  the  rough  spots  reduced  afterwards  by  means 
of  a  hand-scraper,  applied  as  shown  by  Fig.  164.  A  surface 
tnat  *s  re(luired  to  be  true  as  well  as 
smooth,  is  best  smoothed  by  a  scraper 
mounted  like  a  plane-iron.  Such  a 
scraper  may  be  made  to  act  uniformly 
over  an  entire  surface,  whereas  the  hand- 
scraper  is  useful  on  rough  spots  only. 
The  requirement  of  both  truth  and 
smoothness,  however,  is  very  unusual. 
True  surfaces  are  necessary  about  a 
joint,  but  the  parts  of  a  joint  are  smooth  enough  as  left 
by  a  plane.  On  the  other  hand,  a  surface  that  is  required 
to  be  perfectly  smooth,  is  one  which  is  made  to  be  seen, 
and  will  be  sufficiently  true  if  the  eye  does  not  detect  its 
inaccuracy. 

146.  Sand-Papering  (103). — The  use  of  sand-paper  should 
be  confined  to  the  removal  of  the  minute  fiber  which  is  raised 
and  left  by  the  plane.  This  fiber  is  usually  invisible,  but  its 
presence  may  be  detected  by  comparing  a  surface  newly-planed 
with  a  similar  surface  upon  which  sand-paper  has  been  judi- 
ciously used ;  the  latter  will  be  much  smoother.  In  applying 
sand-paper,  the  motion  should  be  "  with  the  grain."  To  pre- 
vent the  destruction  of  sharp  corners  or  delicate  features  of  any 
sort,  the  sand-paper  should  be  held  about,  or  fastened  to,  a 
block  of  wood  corresponding  somewhat  to  the  form  of  the 
work  —  a  flat  block  for  a  flat  surface,  a  curved  block  for  a 
curved  surface.  A  piece  of  thick  leather  is  sometimes  used 
instead  of  the  wooden  block,  and  is  often  more  convenient,  as 
it  may  be  bent  to  fit  almost  any  surface. 

Sand-paper  will  not  satisfactorily  reduce  irregularities  in  a 
surface,  and  should  never  be  substituted  for  the  scraper.  As 
has  been  implied,  it  will  simply  remove  the  fiber,  and  a  few 


BENCH    WORK. 


strokes  arc  generally  found  to  be  sufficient ;  more  are  likely  to 
result  in  injury. 

EXERCISE   No.   5.  — Box. 

The  stock  required  is  f  "  X  6"  x  24^" ;  it  must  be  lined  as 
shown  by  Fig.  165,  and  cut  into  five  pieces.  The  finished  box 
is  shown  by  Fig.  166. 

Fig.  165 

Scale.  i!*—l' 


*  -1  —  10'  > 
3' 

«-  -4J»--» 

A 
1 
<  10'—  t  » 

I 

V 

1 
3' 

147.  If  on  each  of  the  five  pieces  there  is  a  surface  suffi- 
ciently true  for  a  working-face,  it  should  be  marked  as  such ; 
otherwise,  a  working-face  should 
be  made.  From  the  working- 
face  joint  one  edge  on  each 
piece  and  mark  it  as  the  work- 
ing-edge. Set  the  gauge  at  2|" 
(the  inside  depth  of  the  box) 
and  gauge  the  side  and  end 
pieces  to  this  depth,  after  which 
joint  them  to  line.  From  the 
working  edge,  with  the  try- 
square,  scribe  on  the  working- 
face  of  all  the  pieces,  including 
the  bottom,  a  line  about  £"  from 
one  end.  With  the  back-saw 
(56)  cut  these  ends,  being  care-  ELEVATION 

ful  to  keep   on  the   outside   of  the  line  (148).     The  work 
may  be   held   on   the   bench-hook,   as  shown   by  Fig.    167. 


92  BENCH    WORK   IN    WOOD. 

In  starting  the  cut,  the  saw  may  be  made  to  act  across  the 
angle  of  the  work  in  the  direction  of  the  line  ab,  but  should 
gradually  be  brought  to  the  position  shown,  its  motion  being 
parallel  to  the  face  of  the  work,  and  its  stroke  long  enough  to 
bring  every  tooth  into  action.  The  position  of  the  saw  in  Fig. 
167,  together  with  the  dotted  outline,  shows  a  proper  range  of 
movement. 


The  ends,  when  sawed,  should  be  square  with  the  work- 
ing-face and  working-edge.  If  the  cut  is  a  poor  one,  a 
second  may  be  taken  by  removing  just  enough  material  to 
hold  the  saw ;  if  it  is  only  a  little  "  out,"  it  will  be  best,  in 
this  case,  to  pass  the  error  for  a  time.  One  end  of  each  hav- 
ing been  squared,  the  pieces  may  now  be  brought  to  length. 
On  one  of  the  two  pieces  which  are  to  form  the  ends  of  the 
box,  lay  off  and  scribe  a  line  4"  from  the  squared  end.  Meas- 
ure the  second  end  piece  by  the  first  to  insure  the  same  length 
for  both,  whether  the  measurement  is  just  4"  or  not.  Next,  on 
one  of  the  two  side  pieces,  9^"  from  the  squared  end,  scribe  a 
line  for  sawing  and,  using  the  first  piece  as  a  measure,  lay  off  a 
similar  line  on  the  second  side  piece  and  also  on  the  bottom 
piece.  All  the  pieces  having  been  thus  lined,  they  may  be  cut 
with  the  back-saw,  after  which  all  but  the  bottom  piece  will  be 
of  the  dimensions  required. 

148.  Sawing  "outside  of  the  line"  may  be  illustrated  as  fol- 
lows :  if  two  lines  are  made  on  a  piece  of  work  just  12"  apart, 
and  the  portion  between  cut  out  by  sawing  exactly  on  the  lines, 


BENCH    WORK. 


93 


it  is  obvious  that  the  piece  will  be  less  than  12"  long  by  half 

the  width  of  the  saw  kerf  at  each  end,  or,  adding  the  two  de- 

ficiencies, by  the  width  of  one  kerf,  Ty  or  more. 

The  appearance  of  an  end  when  cut  outside  of  a 

line  will  be  that  shown  by  Fig.  168.    The  smooth 

line  along  the  upper  surface,  represents  the  cut 

made  by  the  scriber  in  lining  the  material  ;  the  rest  shows  the 

work  of  the  saw. 

149.  Nailing  (254-256).  —  The  side  and  end  pieces  are  to 
be  nailed,  as  shown  by  Fig.  169,  three  6-penny  casing  nails 
being  used  at  each  angle.  When  brought  together,  the  pieces 
must  be  flush  —  pretty  nearly  right  will  not  do. 

Nails,  when  seen  in  a  certain  position,  appear  equal  in  width 
throughout  their  length,  A,  Fig.  1  70  ;  while  a  view  at  right 
angles  to  the  first,  shows  them  wedge-shaped,  B,  Fig.  1  70.  In 

.  1GO 

Fig.  170 
A         B 


starting  a  nail,  the  line  represented  by  a  must  be  placed  across 
the  grain  of  the  wood,  so  that  the  point  will  cut  the  fibers 
which  are  displaced.  If  the  line  b  is  placed  across  the  grain, 
a  few  only  of  the  fibers  will  be  severed,  and  the  others  will  be 
simply  pressed  apart  by  the  inclined  sides  of  the  nail,  an  action 
which  is  quite  likely  to  split  the  work. 


94 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


150.  Hammer  Marks  on  the  work  must  be  avoided.     One 
who  is  skilled  in  the  use  of  a  hammer,  can  drive  a  nail  slightly 
below  the  surface  of  the  work  without  leaving  a  scar ;  but  it  is 
better  to  stop  driving  before  the  hammer  head  touches  the 
work  than  to  risk  damage. 

151.  Setting  Nails. — When  the  nail  has  been  driven  as 

nearly  "home"  as  possible,  "set"  it 
until  the  head  is  at  least  ^"  below  the 
surface  of  the  work.  In  applying  the 
set,  rest  the  little  finger  of  the  left  hand 
on  the  work,  as  shown  by  Fig.  171,  and 
press  the  set  firmly  against  it ;  there 
will  then  be  no  trouble  in  keeping  the 
set  on  the  head  of  the  nail. 

152.  Withdrawing  Nails.  —  It  sometimes  happens  that  a 
nail,  when  partially  driven,  is  found  to  be  tending  in  a  wrong 
direction,  in  which  case  it  must  be  withdrawn.    If  the  hammer, 
when  used  for  this  purpose,  is  allowed  to  get  into  the  position 
shown  by  Fig.  172,  it  will  mar  the  work,  the  nail  is  likely  to 
splinter   the  wood   around   the  hole  in  coming  out,  and  an 
unnecessary  amount  of  force  on  the  hammer  handle  is  required 
to  draw  it.     A  better  way  is  to  keep  the  hammer  from  contact 
with  the  work  by  a  block  of  wood,  as  a,  Fig.  173.     The  block- 
ing, irs 


ing  should  be  increased  in  thickness  as  the  nail  is  withdrawn. 
If  the  work  has  been  well  done,  the  nail  will  not  be  bent. 


BENCH    WORK.  95 

Never  attempt  to  start  a  nail  in  a  hole  from  which  one  has 
been  withdrawn.  The  second  nail  will  either  follow  the  first 
or,  prevented  from  doing  this,  will  take  an  opposite  course  no 
nearer  right. 

153.  Fastening  the  Box  Bottom.  —  The  side  and  end  pieces 
of  a  box,  when  nailed  together,  may  not  be  exactly  rectangular, 
although  each  piece  has  the  required  length,  and  the  fastening 
cannot  be  depended  on  to  retain  them  with  certainty  in  any 
given  form.  But  when  the  bottom  piece  is  added,  all  parts  be- 
come fixed.  It  is,  therefore,  important  that  the  rest  of  the  box 
be  in  proper  form  when  the  bottom  is  nailed. 

The  bottom  piece  has  been  cut  the  same  length  as  the  side 
pieces,  and  it  has  a  working-edge  with  which  both  ends  are 
square ;  it  is  a  little  wider  than  is  necessary,  but  this  can  be 
made  right  in  finishing  the  box. 

Place  the  bottom  piece 
with  the  working-face  inside, 
and  the  working-edge  even 
with  the  outside  edge  of  one 
of  the  side  pieces,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  174,  and  drive  the 
nails  a.  Now  since  the  angles 

b  are  right  angles,  the  end  pieces  of  the  box,  in  order  to  be 
square  with  the  side,  to  which  the  bottom  is  already  nailed, 
must  agree  with  the  ends  of  the  bottom  piece.  If  they  do  not 
agree,  but  slip  past,  as  shown  by  Fig.  1 74,  slight  pressure  will 
spring  them  to  place,  after  which  nails  may  be  driven  at  the 
points  c. 

The  nails  in  the  bottom  of  a  box  must  be  so  placed  as  to 
avoid  those  which  hold  the  sides  to  the  ends.  No  nail  can  be 
driven  at  the  corners  d. 

Finishing  the  box.  —  With  the  smooth-plane  take  a  light  cut 
all  over  the  outside,  keeping  the  sides  and  ends  square  with  the 


QO  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

bottom  and  with  each  other.  The  ends  of  the  box,  where  the 
end  grain  of  the  bottom  and  side  pieces  is  encountered,  present 
the  most  difficulty. 

154.  In  planing  end  grain,  the  cutting  edge  must  be  sharp 
and  set  to  take  a  fine  shaving.  If  only  a  little  material  is  to 
be  taken  off,  the  movement  of  the  plane  should  be  so  limited 
that  the  cutting  edge  will  not  extend  beyond  the  work,  two 
cuts  being  taken  in  opposite  directions,  as  indicated  by  A  and 
B,  Fig.  175.  The  motion  of  the  plane  in  both  directions, 

Fig.  IT'S  "Kig.aT'G 


ceases  near  C.  If  much  is  to  be  removed,  and  it  seems  best 
to  carry  the  plane  the  entire  length  of  the  surface,  a  bevel  may 
be  made  which  will  allow  the  cutting  edge  of  the  plane  to  leave 
the  work  gradually,  and  at  a  little  distance  from  the  edge,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  176. 


EXERCISE   No.  6.  — BENCH-HOOK  (12). 

The  stock  required  is  if"  X  2f"  X  16"  from  Exercise  No.  4. 
It  is  shown  with  the  necessary  lining  by  Fig.  177,  in  which 
figure  the  Plan,  face  A,  represents  the  working-face,  and  the 
Elevation,  face  B,  the  working-edge.  The  finished  piece  is 
shown  by  Fig.  178. 

155.  Lay  off  the  lines  ab  and  cd  <y&  face  B,  Fig.  177.  Pro- 
ject ab  across  face  A,  as  shown  by  ae,  and  project  cd  across 


BENCH    WORK. 


97 


face  C  (not  shown),  and  from  these,  project  on  face  D  lines 
similar  to  ab  and  cd,  which  are  already  located  on  B.  Lo- 
cate the  point  /  on  lines  ab  and  cd,  and  also  on  the  similar  lines 
of  the  opposite  face  D,  measuring  in  each  case  from  the  work- 


Scale  l>/~l' 


PLAN   (FACE  A.) 


ELEVATION   (FACE  B.) 


ing-face  A,  as  indicated  by  the  dimensions  given.  By  use  of  a 
straight-edge,  draw  ij  and  ik,  and  similar  lines  on  the  opposite 
face. 

Cut  along  the  lines  ij  and  ik  with  the  rip-saw.  There  are 
two  ways  of  starting  the  saw  when  the  material,  as  at  k,  is  not 
sufficient  to  hold  the  blade.  First,  a  saw  cut  may  be  made 
along  the  line  cq,  and  the  triangle  cqk  chiseled  out,  giving  a  flat 
surface,  cq,  on  which  to  begin ;  secondly,  a  block  of  wood  of 
the  same  breadth  with  the  work  may  be  fastened  in  the  vise 


98 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


with  the  latter,  as  shown  by  Fig.  1 79,  thus,  in  effect,  extending 
the  surface  ok.  In  the  case  of  the  line 
ik,  the  second  plan  is  preferable.  The 
block  A  should  bear  well  upon  the  work 
B  at*. 

The  lines  ij  and  ik  having  been  sawed, 
cut  di  and  ai  with  the  back-saw.  With 
the  chisel  produce  the  bevels  repre- 
sented by  mn  and  op.  Bore  the  hole 
R,  Fig.  178,  and  the  piece  is  fin- 
ished. 

156.  With  reference  to  R,  it  may  be  said  that  while  an  auger- 
bit  (89)  will  cut  smoothly  when  entirely  within  the  material,  it 
is  sure  to  splinter  when  coming  out  on  the  face  opposite  the 
starting  point. 

To  prevent  this,  the  bit  may  be  used  from  one  side  until  its 
spur  appears  on  the  opposite  side,  and  then  withdrawn,  and 
started  in  the  opposite  direction  in  the  hole  left  by  the  spur ; 
or  the  work  may  be  held  firmly  to 
another  block,  as  shown  by  Fig.  180, 
and  the  bit  allowed  to  pass  into  the 
block  as  though  the  two  were  one 
piece. 

An  auger-bit  should  cut  freely,  and  advance  into  the  work 
without  much  pushing  on  the  brace  ;  if  it  does  not,  it  is  in  poor 
condition  and  should  be  sharpened. 


EXERCISE   No.   7.  —  HALVED  SPLICE    (202-203). 

The  stock  required  is  if"  X  if"  X  16"  from  Exercise  No.  4  ; 
it  is  shown  with  the  necessary  lining,  by  Fig.  181.  The  com- 
pleted piece  is  shown  by  Fig.  182. 


BENCH    WORK. 


99 


157-  A  and  B,  Fig.  181,  were  marked  as  working- faces 
when  the  piece  was  planed,  and  may  be  used  as  such  in  this 
exercise.  Midway  be- 
tween the  two  ends  on 
face  A,  locate  the  line 
a,  and  from  a  locate  b, 
c,  d,  and  e.  Produce 
each  of  these  lines 
across  all  four  faces  of 
the  piece.  Set  the 
gauge  at  if"  (half  of 
if"  the  width  of  the 
piece),  and  from  the 
working-face  A,  gauge 
a  line  from  b  on  face 
B  around  the  end,  and 
back  to  b  on  face  D ; 
also  from  line  d  on  face 
B  around  the  opposite 
end  to  line  d  on  face 
D.  These  lines  are 
shown  on  face  B  by 
fg  and  ij.  The  joint 
is  made  by  cutting  out 
the  rectangular  pieces 
bhgf  and  ij'lk. 


\ 

1 

»;•* 

f- 
i 

A 

K 

IT 

t 

158.     In    cutting    a 
splice,  both  pieces  are 
not  taken  from  the  same 
face,  for  the  reason  that  the  gauged  line  may 
not  be  exactly  in  the  middle,  and  in  that  case  m 
each  of  the  remaining  parts  would  be  more  -D 
than  half  or  less  than  half  the  thickness  of 


Tr 


100 


BENCH  WORK  IN  WOOD. 


the  material,  and  their  united  thickness,  when  put  together, 
as  in  Fig.  182,  would  be  greater  or  less  than  the  material  else- 


ELEVATION.    FllCC  R, 

where.  The  pieces  cut  out,  therefore,  are  from  opposite  faces. 
Then  if  the  gauge  line  is  not  in  the  center  of  the  piece,  that  is, 
if  bhgf  is  thicker  than  ijlk,  the  smaller  piece  will  be  taken  out  on 
one  side,  and  the  larger  piece  on  the  other ;  and  the  sum  of 
the  two  remaining  parts  when  put  together,  as  in  Fig.  182,  will 
be  equal  to  the  full  size  of  the  material. 

159.  To  cut  the  pieces,  first  run  the  rip-saw  down  the  lines 
gf  and  ij ';  next,  with  the  back-saw,  cut  the  lines  bf  and  Ij ' ; 
next  the  lines  c  and  e,  being  care- 
ful in  all  of  these  cuts  to  keep  the 
proper  side  of  the  line  (148).  Finally, 
cut  on  the  line  a,  and  try  the  pieces 
together  as  in  Fig.  182.  If  the  work 
has  been  well  done,  the  joint  will  be 
good.  If  it  is  not  good,  the  faults 
may  be  corrected.  The  cuts  gf  and 
ij,  if  not  quite  to  line,  may  be  brought 
to  it  by  using  the  chisel  as  shown  by  Fig.  147.  To  facili- 


BENCH    WORK.  IOI 

tate  the  operation,  make  chamfers  on  each  side  from  the 
line  to  the  sawed  surface,  as  shown  by  Fig.  183,  to  be  used 
instead  of  the  line.  Such  chamfers  present  a  twofold  advan- 
tage ;  they  are  both  visible  from  the  same  point,  and  they  pre- 
vent splintering  on  the  side  on  which  the  chisel  comes  out. 
The  fitting  on  the  line  ab,  Fig.  182,  having  been  finished,  sup- 
pose that  the  heading-joint  ac  fits,  but 

°  J  ITig.  184 

that   bd  does    not ;    or   suppose   that  c        

neither  fits  properly,  as  shown  by  Fig.    [  S^^^J 

184.     If  the  discrepancy  is  not  great,  d 

the  joint  may  be  corrected  by  use  of  the  chisel,  or  it  may  be 
sawed  to  a  fit. 

160.  "To  saw  a  Fit,"  the  two  pieces  should  be  clamped 
together,  or  held  by  hand  in  the  position  shown  by  Fig.  184, 
and  the  joint  at  c  sawed  into.  This  will  make  c  at  least  as 
wide  as  the  saw  kerf.  Without  changing  the  relative  position 
of  the  pieces,  turn  the  work  over  and  saw  d,  which  will  also 
become  at  least  as  wide  as  the  saw  kerf,  and,  consequently, 
equal  to  c  in  so  far  as  the  joints  have  been  affected  by  the  saw. 
If  in  each  case  the  joint  is  close  enough  to  hold  the  saw,  the 
pieces  after  sawing  will  come  together  perfectly.  If  one  saw- 
ing is  insufficient,  the  pieces  may  be  brought  together  and 
sawed  a  second,  and  even  a  third  time. 

This  method  of  fitting  may  be  widely  applied. 

When  the  joint  is  perfect,  the  pieces  are  to  be  nailed  at  each 

Fig.185 


end  with  4-penny  casing   nails  driven   obliquely,  or   "toed," 
as  illustrated  by  Fig.  185.     While  nailing,  rest  the  pieces  A 


102 


BENCH  WORK  IN  WOOD. 


B  on  the   bench    C,   and,  to   retain  them   in   position, 

allow  one  to  bear  on 
the  block  D,  which 
in  turn  is  held  by  the 
bench-stop.  The  block 
protects  the  ends  of  the 
work,  which  would  be 
mutilated  by  the  bench- 
stop  if  they  were  placed 
in  direct  contact  with 
it. 

161.    Toeing  Nails. 
— The  advantage  to  be 
derived   from  toeing  a 
nail  lies  in  the  fact  that 
it   always    "  draws "    in 
the  direction  in  which 
it  is  driven.     If  driven 
k*     as  shown  by  a,  Fig.  185, 
H-     it    will    draw   A    upon 
p     B  both  in  a  horizontal 
>     and  in  a  vertical  direc- 
w     tion,  and  will  thus  in- 
sure good  contact  be- 
tween the  parts  of  the 
joint. 

The  nails  having  been 
driven  and  set,  each  of 
the  four  sides  may  be 
given  a  final  smooth- 
ing by  a  stroke  of  the 
plane. 


BENCH    WORK. 


103 


EXERCISE   No.   8.— SPLAYED  SPLICE. 

The  stock  required  is  if'x  i|"x  16",  from  Exercise  No.  4  ; 
the  necessary  lines  are  shown  by  Fig.  186.  The  finished  piece 
is  represented  by  Fig.  187. 


162.  Let  the  faces  A  and  B  be  the  working-faces.      Lay 
off  on  face  A  line  a,  and  from  a,  the  lines  b,  c,  d,  f,  f,  g,  h,  and 
/,  and  project  these  lines  on  all  four  faces  of  the  work.     Set  the 
bevel  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees ;  with  its  beam  on  A,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  dotted  outline,  lay  off  on  B  lines  dj,  bk,  gj,  and 
ik,  and  repeat  these  lines  on  face  D.     Connect  points  on  both 
B  and  D,  forming  lines  which  on  B  appear  as  bj  and  ij.     The 
portions  marked  r  are  to  be  removed. 

163.  To  cut  the  joint,  first  use  the 
rip-saw  on  the  lines   bj  and   ij,  and 
afterwards  the  back-saw  on  the  short 
oblique  lines  gj  and  bk.     The  back- 
saw  can  easily  be  started  if,  while  the 
piece  is  held  in  the  vise,  a  stroke  is 
given  in  the   direction  a,   Fig.    188, 

to  carry  the  saw  into  the  work  a  distance  equal  to  the  depth 


IO4 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


of  its  teeth,  after  which  it  may  be  turned  into  the   desired  di- 
rection b. 

The  splayed  ends  dj  and  ik  may  be  cut  with  the  work  on 
the  bench-hook,  Fig.  189.  By  following  the  directions  given  in 
the  previous  exercise  the  joint  may  be  finished,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  187. 


EXERCISE  No.  9.  —  MORTISE-AND-TENON  JOINT  (211-215). 

The  stock  required  is  if"  x  if"  X  16",  from  Exercise  No.  4  \ 
it  is  shown  with  the  necessary  lines  by  Fig.  190.  The  finished 
piece  is  shown  by  Fig.  191. 

164.  Let  A  and  B  represent  the  two  working-faces.  From 
one  end  of  the  piece,  on  face  A,  lay  off  line  a,  and  from  a,  lay  ofl 
lines  b,  c,  and  d.  Measure  carefully  the  width  of  the  piece  on 
line  d,  face  A,  and  lay  off  one-half  of  the  same  on  each  side  ol 
the  line  b,  and  through  the  points  thus  fixed  make  lines  e  and/ 
Project  the  lines  a,  c,  and  d  on  all  four  faces  of  the  piece,  and  th: 
lines  e  and  /  on  B  and  D,  the  two  faces  adjoining  A.  Set  the 
gauge  at  £",  and  from  face  A,  gauge  on  B  the  line  gh  and  a 
similar  line  on  the  opposite  face  D.  Gauge  the  line  if  and 
carry  it  around  the  end  of  the  work  to  the  line  d  on  face  D, 
Set  another  gauge  at  i^"  (£"  +  f ",  the  width  of  the  mortise  and 
of  the  tenon),  and  gauge  between  the  same  lines  as  before,  pro- 


BENCH    WORK. 


105 


ducing  g>h',  i'f,  etc.     The  mortise  and  the 
by  cutting  out  the  por- 
tions marked  r. 

The  method  of  "  lay- 
ing off"  the  width  of  the 
mortise  and  the  tenon 
is  to  be  especially  ob- 
served. The  distance 
between  the  two  lines 
which  define  the  width 
of  the  mortise,  and  those 
which  define  the  width  f 

| 

of     the     tenon,     being     ' 
equal  to  the  difference     \ 
in  the  setting  of  the  two     '• 
gauges,    must    be     the     i 
same.      The    result,    as     j 
far  as  the  mortise  and     ! 
tenon     are     concerned, 
would  not   be   different 
if  the  piece  containing 
the  mortise  were  twice 
as  thick  as  that  carrying 
the  tenon.     It  is  best  to 
use  two  gauges  to  avoid 
the  mistakes  which  might 
arise    from    changing  a 
single  one.     Then,  if  it 
should  be  found  neces- 
sary to  use  them   after 
the  first  lining,  precisely 
the  same  measurements 
will  be  obtained.     This 
process    can   be    short- 


tenon  are  formed 


•  o 


io6 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


ened  by  using  a  mortise-gauge  (33),  which  makes  both  lines  at 
the  same  time. 

165.   Cutting  the  Mortise.  —  It  will  be  remembered  that  the 
lines  which  appear  on  face  B,  Fig.  190,  have  their  counterparts 


on  the  opposite  face  D.  To  cut  the  mortise,  select  a  chisel 
having  a  width  as  nearly  as  possible  equal  to  the  space  between 
the  gauge  lines,  and,  beginning  on  face  B,  near  the  middle  of 
the  mortise,  advance  toward  one  end,  as  shown  by  Fig.  149. 
The  end  of  the  mortise  having  been  reached,  commence  at  the 
starting  point  and  advance  to  the  other  end.  Always  loosen 
the  chisel  by  a  backward  movement  of  the  handle  ;  a  movement 
in  the  opposite  direction  would  injure  the  ends  of  the  mortise. 
(See  Fig.  149.)  After  the  first  few  cuts,  each  deeper  than  the 
preceding,  the  chisel  can  easily  be  made  to  penetrate  an  inch 
or  more,  in  pine  or  poplar.  If  the  depth  is  equal  to  half  the 
thickness  of  the  work,  no  attention  need  be  given  to  the  chips. 
One  side  of  the  mortise  having  been  cut  in  this  manner,  turn 
the  work  over  and  repeat  the  operation  on  face  D,  the  chisel 


BENCH    WORK. 


107 


Fig.  102 


being  driven  down  to  meet  the  opening  made  from  the  first  side. 
After  the  cutting  is  finished,  the  chips  may  be  dug  out  with  a 
chisel  or  driven  through  by  use  of  a  wooden  plug.  Never  try 
to  drive  them  through  by  using  the  chisel  with  its  cutting  edge 
parallel  to  the  grain,  as  such  use 
is  very  likely  to  split  the  work. 
The  chips  having  been  re- 
moved, the  truth  of  the  mortise 
may  be  tested  by  using  the  flat 
side  of  the  chisel  as  a  straight- 
edge, as  shown  by  Fig.  192. 
The  sides  of  the  finished  mortise 
should  agree  with  the  chisel,  as 

at  a.     Compare  a  with  b.     Remember  that  at  least  one-half  the 
thickness  of  the  line  should  remain  on  the  work. 


Fig.  103 


1 66.  The  Tenon  may  next  be  cut  by  using  the  back-saw, 
both  across  the  grain  and  with  it.  The  sawing,  if  to  line,  leaves 
nothing  to  be  done  except  the  pointing  of  the  tenon  ;  this  is 
accomplished  by  a  stroke  of 
the  chisel  on  each  side,  which 
makes  it  appear  as  shown  by 
Fig.  193.  The  pointing  is 
necessary,  because  a  square- 
ended,  tight-fitting  tenon,  if 
.driven  to  place,  will  splinter 
the  sides  of  the  mortise.  The 
length  of  the  tenon  is  suffi- 
cient to  make  it  project  be- 
yond the  mortise  a  distance 
more  than  equal  to  the  part 

pointed.     After  the  fitting  has  been  done,  the  projecting  part  is 
cut  off. 

When  both  the  mortise  and  tenon  are  finished,  cut  the  piece 


lo8 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


on  the  line  c,  Fig.  190,  and  try  the  tenon  in  the  mortise.  It 
should  enter  at  a  light-driving  fit.  If  the  shoulders  of  the  tenon 
do  not  make  a  good  joint  with  the  cheeks  of  the  mortise,  that 
is,  if  the  joint  at  S,  Fig.  191,  is  not  good,  it  may  be  sawed  to  a 
fit,  as  in  the  case  of  the  splice.  When  all  is  satisfactory,  bore 
the  pin  hole,  insert  the  pin,  cut  off  the  projecting  portion  of  the 
tenon  and  of  the  pin,  and  take  a  light  shaving  from  those  sur- 
faces on  which  a  plane  may  be  used. 

167.  To  Make  a  Pin  (249).  —  Select  a  piece  of  straight- 
grained  material,  in  this  case  4"  or  5"  long,  and,  by  use  of  the 
chisel,  reduce  it  in  section  to  a  square  whose  side  is  slightly 
greater  than  the  diameter  of  the  hole  it  is  to  fit.  Then  take  off 
the  corners,  making  it  an  octagon  in  section,  and  point  one 

JTig.  1O4 


Kig. 


end.     All  this  will  be  best  accomplished  if  the  piece  is  held 
by  the  bench-hook,  as  indicated  by  Fig.  194. 

1 68.   Drawboring  is  a  term  applied  to  a  method  of  locating 

pin  holes  so  as  to  make 
the  pin  draw  the  tenon 
into  the  mortise.  Fig. 
195  shows  the  relative 
position  of  the  holes  be- 
fore the  pin  is  inserted. 
It  is  evident  that  a 
tight-fitting  pin  will  have 
a  tendency  to  make  the  holes  in  the  mortise  and  tenon 
coincide,  and  thus  draw  the  two  pieces  together.  The  holes 


WORK. 


109 


tnay  be  located  on  the  mortise  and  tenon  by  direct  measure- 
ment ;  or  the  cheeks  of  the  mortise  may  be  bored  through  and 


f- 

1 

SK 

1 

1 

,^~ 

*J 

t 

1 

1 

1 

1 

*,, 

1- 

1 

r 

\ 

the  tenon  inserted,  and  marked 

by  putting  the  bit  into  the  hole 

already   bored   and   forcing    its 

point  against    the    tenon.     The 

tenon  may  then  be  withdrawn 

and  bored,  the  point  of  the  bit  being  placed  a  little  nearer  the 

shoulder  of  the  tenon  than  the  mark. 


no 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


The  practice  of  drawboring  is  not  to  be  commended,  and, 
if  indulged  in  at  all,  great  care  and  discretion  must  be  exer- 
cised. In  many  cases,  it  puts  a  strain  on  the  joint  which  is 
nearly  equal  to  its  maximum  resistance,  and  but  little  strength 
is  left  to  do  the  work  for  which  the  joint  is  made.  Frequently, 
the  mortise  or  tenon  is  split  and  rendered  practically  useless. 


EXERCISE   No.  10. 
KEYED  MORTISE- AND-TENON  7011^(240-245). 

The  stock  required  is  if"  X  if"  X  16",  from  Exercise  No.  4  ; 

it  is  shown  with  the  ne- 
cessary lining  by  Fig. 
196.  The  finished  piece 
is  represented  by  Fig. 
197. 


T 


ELEVATION. 

as  indicated  by  the  dotted  line  /',  face  A. 


169.  The  lining  dif- 
fers from  that  of  the 
preceding  exercise  in 
the  following  respects  : 
the  position  of  the  line 
b  is  changed  as  indi- 
cated by  the  dimension 
figures,  and  the  position 
of  lines  e  and  f,  which 
extend  around  the  piece, 
is  changed  to  corre- 
spond;  the  mortise  is 
made  longer  on  face  B 
than  on  face  D,  giv- 
ing one  oblique  end, 


BENCH    WORK.  Ill 

As  regards  the  tenon,  the  line  g  is  added  at  -a  distance  from 
d  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  piece  on  the  line  b,  face  A ; 
the  point  h  is  located  on  face  A,  and  on  the  opposite  face  C, 
and  the  line  gh  drawn  on  both  faces.  The  mortise  r1  is  to  be 
cut  as  in  the  preceding  exercise,  and  one  end  made  oblique  as 
indicated  by  the  figure. 

To  form  the  tenon  the  portions  marked  r  are  to  be  removed. 
First,  beginning  at  g,  cut  along  the  oblique  line  gh ;  then,  be- 
ginning at  k,  the  two  lines  kj  •  and,  finally,  define  the  shoulders 
of  the  tenon  by  cutting  on  the  line  d.  This  order  will  save  all 
the  lines  as  long  as  they  are  needed. 

170.  A  study  of  the  finished  piece  will  show  that  the  tenon 
is  inserted  from  the  face  Z>,  and  pushed  over  so  that  the  splayed 
edge  of  the  tenon,  gh,  bears  on  the  splayed  end  of  the  mortise, 
;',  leaving  an  open  space  at  the  other  end  of  the  mortise  to  be 
filled  by  the  key.  See  Fig.  197. 

The  key  should  be  planed  from  a  piece  5"  or  6"  long.  It 
should  be  uniform  in  width  and  nearly  so  in  thickness,  there 
being  but  a  slight  taper  near  the  end  which  is  to  be  driven  in 
advance ;  this  end  should  be  pointed  like  a  tenon.  It  is  best 
to  drive  the  key  from  the  inside  in  the  direction  indicated  by 
the  arrow,  Fig.  197. 

The  piece  is  to  be  finished  in  accordance  with  the  appear- 
ance and  dimensions  shown  by  Fig.  197. 

EXERCISE   No.  n.  — PLAIN  DOVETAIL. 

The  stock  required  is  two  pieces,  each  -J"  X  3f "  X  4", 
edges  jointed  parallel,  and  one  end  squared.  (The  material 
may  be  worked  up  as  one  piece  £"  x  3!"  X  8",  which,  after 
being  planed  to  width,  may  be  cut  in  two  with  the  back-saw, 
thus  giving  the  squared  ends  required.)  The  working-faces 
used  in  preparing  the  material  may  also  be  used  in  laying  off 
the  lines.  To  avoid  confusion  one  piece  will  be  called  X  and 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


the  other  Y.     Fig.  198  shows  the  lining  necessary  for  Jf  and   Y 
respectively.     The  finished  joint  is  shown  by  Fig.  199. 


171. 


Fig.  108 
Scale,     3-1' 

b                   B 

e 

~^~~~. 

f 

f  i 

•f- 

—  — 

X 

3jT  — 

~~f~ 

HZ 

ELEVATION    (FACE  A.) 


D 

END 


Lay  off  on  all  four  faces  of  each  piece,  £"  from  the 
squared  end,  the  line  ab,  Fig.  198. 
Fasten  X  in  the  vise,  and  on  its 
squared  end  lay  off  lines  as  gh, 
Fig.  198.  Remove  the  piece  from 
the  vise,  and  with  the  bevel  set 
"i  to  4"  (29),  project  on  the 
faces  A  and  C  oblique  lines  as 
ef.  The  portions  which  are  to  be 
removed  to  form  the  mortises,  are 
marked  r.  Put  the  piece  in  the 
vise  again,  and  with  the  back-saw 
cut  down  the  oblique  lines  as  ef. 
With  a  chisel,  used  as  in  cutting 
an  ordinary  mortise,  remove  the 
material  between  the  lines.  If 
preferred,  part  of  it  can  be  re- 
moved by  boring  a  hole  as  indi- 
cated by  the  dotted  outline.  The 
E.LEVATIC  ,E  c.)  koie  ^.^  ma^e  fae  chiseling  easier, 

but  in  so  small  a  piece  of  work  it  is  doubtful  whether  there  is 
anything  gained.  The  piece  X  having  been  finished,  fasten  Y 
in  the  vise,  working-end  up  and  working-face  outward.  Place 
the  working- face  of  X  on  the  working-end  of  Y,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  200,  taking  care  that  the  line  ab  on  X  is  in  the  same  line 
with  the  working-face  of  K  Holding  the  work  in  this  position, 
and  guided  by  the  mortises  in  X,  scribe  on  the  end  of  Y  the 
oblique  lines  as  gh,  Fig.  198.  Remove  Y  from  the  vise,  and 
with  the  beam  of  the  square  on  the  working-end,  project  to  ab 
lines  as  ef  from  the  extremities  of  the  oblique  lines  just  made. 
The  portions  marked  r  and  r1  are  to  be  removed  to  form  the 


BENCH    WORK. 


ELEVATION    (B.) 


"pins."  Those  on  the  outside  marked  r'  may  be  removed 
entirely  with  the  saw;  those  on  the  inside  (r),  partly  with  the 
chisel,  as  in  the  case  of  the  mortises  in  the  piece  X. 

172.   The  joint  ought  to  go  together  by  light  driving,  and 

be  perfectly  square  on 
the     inside     between 
the  working-faces.      If 
it  is  found  to  be  satis- 
factory, take  it  apart, 
apply  a  light  coating 
of  glue,  and  drive  to- 
gether  again.      When 
the  glue  is  hard,  the 
joint  may  be  smoothed  and  squared,  and 
the  ends  of  the  pieces  cut  to  the  dimen- 
sions shown  in  Fig.  199. 

173.  It  will  be  seen  that  one  part  of 
the  joint  is  made,  and  the  second  part  is 
then  made  to  fit  the  first;  hence,  the 
proportions  of  the  first  part  need  not  be 
determined  with  great  exactness.  The  skilled 
bench-worker  usually  proceeds  as  follows :  on 
the  piece  X  (if  there  are  several  pieces,  X,  he 
treats  them  all  at  the  same  time)  he  lays  off 
the  lines  ab  and  cross-lines  as  gh,  the  latter 
without  measuring,  and  then  saws  obliquely 
without  the  use  of  lines  as  ef;  on  Y  he  lays  off 
the  lines  ab  and  oblique  lines  as  gh,  and  saws  without  making 
lines  as  ef.  In  this  way  the  joint  is  soon  made,  and,  al- 
though not  perfectly  symmetrical,  it  may  be  well-formed  and 
well-fitted. 


ELEVATION    (A.) 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


ELEVATION    (FACE  B.) 


EXERCISE  No.  12. —  LAP,  OR  DRAWER,  DOVETAIL. 

The  stock  required   is   one   piece  |-"  x  3f "  X  4"  and  one 

piece  i''  X  3f "  X  4", 
edges  jointed  parallel 
and  one  end  of  each 
squared.  The  finished 
piece  is  shown  by  Fig. 
201.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  piece  Y  does 
not  extend  across  the 
full  thickness  of  the 

piece  X,  and,  consequently,  the  end  grain 
does   not    ap- 
pear in  Eleva- 
tion   J3,    Fig. 


ELEVA-HON    (FACE  A..  174.      Ott    Y, 

Fig.  202,  scribe  the  line  ab,  £" 
(the  thickness  of  X)  from  the 
working -end,  and  continue  it 
across  the  working-edges.  Set  a 
gauge  at  f  ",  and  from  the  work- 
ing-face A  gauge  the  line  cd  on 
the  working-end,  and  extend  it  on 
the  edges  until  it  meets  the  ex- 
tended line  ab,  as  shown  by  face 
D,  Fig.  202.  From  the  working- 
end  of  X,  with  the  same  gauge, 
make  the  line  ab  on  the  two  faces 
A  and  C.  Produce  the  remaining 
lines  on  X,  cut  the  mortises,  and 
lay  off  Y  by  X,  as  in  the  last 
exercise. 


ELEVATION    (FACE  A.) 


e 
X 

sr  e 

~-~-^ 

_--  -~- 

—  -. 

£    -r- 
7      . 

4^^- 

•^--. 

i   z 

B 

)            END 

ELEVATION    (FACE  A 

BENCH    WORK. 


In  cutting  out  around  the  pins  (F),  the  delicacy  of  the  work 
does  not  demand  the  most  delicate  chisel,  but  one  as  large  as 
is  convenient  should  be  used.  Finish  the  joint  to  the  dimen- 
sions given  by  Fig.  201. 

EXERCISE  No.  13.  — BLIND  DOVETAIL. 

The  stock  required 
is   two    pieces,    each 
f '  X  3f  "  X  4"   edges 
jointed    parallel    and 
one  end  squared.  The 
finished  joint  is  shown 
by    Fig.    203.      The 
ELEVATION  (FACE  B.)      dovetail  iswholly  with- 
in the  square  abcd>  and,  consequently,  no 
end  grain  shows  on  any  face. 


175.  With  the  square,  lay  off  on  the 
working- faces  and  two  edges  of  each  piece 
of  material,  Fig.  204,  the  lines  ba,  at,  and 

ELEVATION  (FACE  A.I      cd,  dk,  and  from  the  working-face  A  gauge 

on  the  ends  of  each  piece  the  line  ef. 


Trig.  204 
c     6 


rtt 


Kig.  205 

Scale,      S-l' 

c       t)  JS 


PLAN   (FACE  D.) 


aPel 


ELEVATION    (FACE  A.) 


n6 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


iri gs.  2 0(3 

Scale,     3-1' 


Cut  both  pieces  as  shown  by  Fig.  205.  Taking  one  of  the 
pieces,  which  will  be  called  X,  space1  and  lay  off  on  the  reduced 
end  surface  lines  as  op,  Fig.  206,  using  the  try-square  blade 
as  indicated  by  the  dotted  outline.  Next,  produce  oblique 
lines  as  gh,  shown  in  the  same 
figure,  and  cut  the  mortises 
marked  r. 

With  Y  in  the  vise  apply  X, 
in  which  the  mortises  have  al- 
ready been  cut,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  207,  so  that  points  may  be 
located  along  the  exterior  angle 
e'  of  Y,  corresponding  to  the 
openings  in  X.  Project  these 
points  (shown  on  line  e'f,  Fig. 
208)  from  the  exterior  angle  e', 
to  the  interior  angle  b{ ',  Fig. 
207.  Next  apply  X  to  Y,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  209 ;  from  this 
position  the  points  shown  on 
the  line '  a'i',  Fig.  208,  can  be 
secured  along  the  angle  a'. 
These  points,  when  connected, 
will  give  lines  as  gh,  Y,  Fig.  206. 
From  these  lines,  project  on  the 
working-face  lines  as  ij,  down 
to  the  line  <fk'.  Cut  out  the 

portions  marked  r,  and  the  dovetail  is  finished.  It  now  re- 
mains to  make  a  miter-joint  between  the  two  rectangular  pro- 
jections on  X  and  K  Set  the  bevel  at  a  miter  (an  angle  of  45 


ELEVATION    (FACE  Aj 


1  No  dimensions  are  given  for  locating  the  lines  similar  to  op,  X,  Fig. 
206.  They  can  he  found  by  measuring  the  drawing,  which,  as  indicated  by 
the  scale,  is  one-fourth  the  size  of  the  piece  it  represents. 


BENCH    WORK. 


117 


degrees)  and  scribe  the  dotted  line  <?,  Fig.  205,  on  each  piece ; 
then  cut  to  line  with  a  chisel.  When  the  joint  has  been  fitted, 
glue,  and  finish  to  dimensions. 


"Fig.  300 


r 

'Vvl 


176.    If,  instead  of  cutting  out  the  first  and  last  space  of  Y, 
one-half  only  is  cut  out,  as  shown  by  Fig.  210, 
the  dividing  line  being  on  a  miter,  and,  if  the 
outside  portions  of  X,  m,  m,  Fig.  206,  are  cut     / 
away  to  a  miter  to  correspond,  the  joint  will 
appear   as    a    plain    miter-joint,   instead    of    that    shown    by 
Fig.  203. 


EXERCISE   No.  14.— FRAME  AND  PANEL  (246-248). 

177.  Fig.  211  shows  a  small  panel  door.  The  frame  is  made 
up  of  stiles  and  rails,  which  are  fastened  together  by  mortise-and- 
tenon  joints ;  the  spaces  within  the  frame  are  filled  by  panels. 
The  lower  panel  is  simply  a  thin  board  screwed  to  the  back  of 
the  frame.  The  upper  panel  is  composed  of  narrow  strips,  which 
are  inserted  in  a  groove  made  in  the  frame  for  their  reception. 
The  front  of  the  frame,  around  the  lower  panel,  is  chamfered, 
and  around  the  upper  panel  is  beaded.  It  is  the  purpose  of 
this  exercise  to  construct  that  portion  of  the  door  included 
within  the  rectangle  abdc. 


I  18  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

Three  pieces  of  stock  are  required,  each  jointed  to  dimen- 


sions  as  follows  :  for  the  stile, 

i£"  x  2^"  x  9" ;  for  the  rail, 

1 1"  X  4"  X  6£" ;  and  for  the 

panel  £"  X  5"  X  si".      The 

finished   work   is    shown   by  ELEVATION. 

Fig.  212. 

178.  The  mortise-and-tenon  joint  between  the  stile  and  rail, 
both  in  the  size  and  position  of  its  parts,  is  shown  by  Fig.  213. 
The  width  of  the  mortise  and  the  tenon  should  be  equal  to  the 
width  of  the  f"  chisel.1  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  lines  are 
so  placed  as  to  make  the  stile  extend  beyond  the  lower  edge  of 
the  rail.  This  extension,  or  "  horn,"  as  it  is  called,  is  for  the 


1  The  nominal  width  of  a  chisel  does  not  always  agree  with  its  actual 
width. 


BENCH    WORK.  IK) 

purpose  of  re-enforcing  the  end  of  the  mortise  during  the  fit- 
ting, —  a  recourse  which  must  always  be  had  when  the  mortise 
in  the  finished  work  closely  approaches  the  end  of  the  material. 
After  all  the  jointing  has  been  done,  the  horns  may  be  cut  off. 
Having  laid  off  the  necessary  lines  for  cutting  the  mortise  and 
the  tenon,  very  light  lines,  as  cd  and  c'd*,  Fig.  213,  should  be 
made  on  both  stile  and  rail  to  guide  in  cutting  the  chamfers. 


Sc«le,      S-1 


»i-  —  *H 


SIDE  OF  RAIL. 


1 

^  i 

(% 

i 

-if 

Jd\ 

i 

c 

f 

I 

e? 

1 

i  _  . 

JL-t- 

a 

f 

[ 

• 

\  ____ 

i. 

i 

i- 

SIDE  OF  STILE.  EDGE  A  OF  ST  I  LE 


Cut  and   fit   the   mortise  and  tenon,  and  then  make  both 
chamfers,  as  shown  in  the  finished  piece,  Fig.  212. 

179.  Short  chamfers  (222,  223)  like  these  are  best  cut  by 
use  of  the  chisel,  a  spokeshave  sometimes  being  used  in  finishing. 

Long  chamfers  may  be  cut  rapidly  by  the   drawing-knife, 
which  may  be  followed  by  the  smooth-plane. 

180.  Before  putting  the  joint  together,  enlarge  the  outside 
end  of  each  mortise,  as  shown  by  a  and  b,  Fig.  213,  to  make 
room   for  the  wedges  c,  c,  which,  after  the  joint   has   been 


I2O  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

driven  together,  are  to  be  dipped  in  glue  and  driven  as 
indicated.  This  method  of  wedging  forms  a  very  strong 
joint  (250,  251). 

181.  Round  the  edge  of  the  panel  on  the  bottom  and  side, 
as  shown  by  a,  Fig.  212,  and  fasten  it  to  the  back  of  the 
frame  by  two  i"  No.  8  screws  —  one  in  the  rail,  and  one,  b, 
in  the  stile  (258). 

182.  In  inserting  screws,  the  outside  piece  (in  this  case  the 
panel)  must  be  bored  for  each  screw.     The  hole  should  be 
sufficiently  large  to  allow  the  screw  to  pass  through  easily ;  and, 
if  the  wood  is  hard,  it  must  be  enlarged  at  the  top,  or  "  coun- 
terbored,"  to  receive  the  head  of  the  screw.     The  piece  in 
which  the  screw  holds  (in  this  case  the  frame),  if  of  soft  wood, 
need  not  be  bored  unless  there  is  danger  that  it  may  split,  in 
which  case  a  hole  should  be  made,  in  diameter  about  two-thirds 
that  of  the  screw.     The  necessity  for  a  hole  in  hard  wood 
depends  largely  on  the  proportions  of  the  screw.      A  short, 
large-wired  screw  will  stand  almost  any  service,  while  a  long 
slender  one  will  frequently  be  twisted  or  broken  under  the 
strain  necessary  to  drive  it  into  wood  which  is  only  moder- 
ately hard. 

Judgment  must  determine  when  the  screw  is  driven  suf- 
ficiently. The  head  must  bed  well  into  the  wood ;  but 
there  is  danger  that  it  may  be  forced  so  far  as  to  "  strip  " 
the  thread,  and  that,  as  a  consequence,  the  screw  will  not 
hold  (96,  98). 

Never  allow  the  screw-driver  to  slip  from  the  slot  of  the 
screw  while  the  latter  is  being  driven. 

183.  Brad-awls  are  useful  in  preparing  the  way  for  small 
screws.     The  cutting  edge  should  always  be  placed  across  the 
grain  so  that  the  fibers  will  be  cut,  and  not  simply  pressed  apart 
to  close  up  again  when  the  tool  is  withdrawn.     The  difference 


BENCH    WORK. 


121 


in  effect  may  be  seen  by  comparing,  Fig.  214,  A,  which  shows 
a  proper  action,  with  B. 

Wig.  214. 


EXERCISE   No.  15.  — PANELING. 

This  exercise  consists  in  making  that  portion  of  the  panel 
door,  Fig.  211,  included  within  the  rectangle  efgh. 


122 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


Three  pieces  of  stock  are  required,  each  jointed  to  dimen- 
sions as  follows  :  stile  if  x  2^"  x  9";  rail  if  X  2f  x  6f ; 
panel  strip  f  X  if"  X  18".  The  completed  exercise  is  shown 
by  Fig.  215. 

184.  In  considering  the  joint  between  the  stile  and  rail  as 
shown  by  Fig.  216,  three  new  features  will  be  observed;  the 
groove,  or  "plow,"  which  is  to  receive  the  panel,  as  shown  at 
"a,  Fig.  215  ;  the  beads  f,f-,  and  the  mitered  corner  cd,  which 
allows  the  parts  to  be  plowed  and  beaded  as  shown,  without 
affecting  the  mortise-and-tenon  joint.  « 

Follow  the  dimensions,  and  line  for  the  mortise  and  tenon  as 
in  the  preceding  exercises,  supposing  the  rail  to  be  of  the  form 
indicated  by  the  dotted  outline  (?jc',  Fig.  216,  and  the  stile  to 
be  of  the  form  indicated  by  efd.  This  done,  add  the  lines  ec, 

Fig.  SIO 
Scale,     8*-f 


t 


j   d 


J 

1             »      a 

(1 

*•*» 

i     cms 

T. 

|                   ••          T 

ELEVATION. 


cd,  and  c'd*,  by  means  of  gauge  and  bevel.     Cut  the  mortise 
and  the  tenon,  after  which  plow  the  groove  a. 


BENCH    WORK. 


123 


185.  No  special  direction  can  be  given  for  using  the  plow 
(85),  except  that  it  is  to  be  used  from  the  working-edge ;  but 
it  will  be  safe  to  practice  with  it  on  a  piece  of  waste  material 
before  applying  it  to  the  work. 


ITiS.  2 17 

Scale,      3—  l' 


Fig.  218 
Scale,      3'-  \f 


1 86.  Next,  the  beads  /,/,  Fig.  215,  are  to  be  formed  on  the 
inside  edge  of  both  rail  and  stile,  that  is,  along  the  edges 
marked  l>,  Fig.  216.  What  has  already  been  said  regarding 
the  use  of  the  plow,  may  also  be  said  of  the  beading-plane 

(84). 

The  mitered  corners  are  now  to  be  formed  by  cutting  with 
the  back-saw  to  lines  already  made,  and  then  the  joint  between 
stile  and  rail,  fitted  and  wedged  as 
in  Exercise  No.  14. 

The  frame  having  been  made 
ready,  attention  may  be  given  to 
the  panel.  The  panel  strip,  al- 
ready jointed,  must  be  "matched" 
by  forming  the  tongue  b  and  the 
groove  a,  Fig.  217.  This  opera- 
tion brings  into  use  the  \"  match- 
ing-planes  (82),  which  should  first 
be  tried  on  a  piece  of  waste  ma- 
terial. The  bead  c,  Fig.  217,  is 
to  be  made  with  a  ^-"  beading-  "SIDE"  END. 

plane. 

Cut  the  panel  strip  into  lengths  suitable  for  forming  the 
complete  panel,  Fig.  218,  using  either  the  bevel  or  the  miter- 


L 


124 


BENCH   WORK    IN    WOOD. 


box  in  obtaining  the  angle  of  the  ends.  The  fitting  of  the 
pieces  one  to  another  will  be  most  easily  done  if  they  are  cut 
in  order,  as  a,  b,  c,  etc. 

187.  In  using  the  miter-box,  Fig.  219,  the  work  a,  while 
resting  on  the  bottom  of  the  box,  must  be  pressed  against  the 
side  b,  in  which  position,  the  saw,  guided  by  the  box  as  shown, 
will  cut  the  piece  at  a  miter.  The  opposite  guide  cc  may  be 
used  in  the  same  manner.  By  using  d  the  work  will  be  cut  off 


square.  To  hold  the  pieces  of  the  panel  together,  and  to  fasten 
the  panel  to  the  frame,  light  brads  may  be  inserted  in  the 
oblique  ends  of  the  panel  strips  shown  at  b,  Fig.  215,  or, 
what  is,  perhaps,  better,  glue  may  be  used.  If  the  door  were 
complete,  as  shown  by  Fig.  211,  the  panel  would  have  perfect 
support  in  the  frame. 


PART  III. 


ELEMENTS    OF    WOOD    CONSTRUCTION. 

TIMBER.1 

188.    "  Timber  is  that  portion  of  the  woody  material  of  trees 
which  is  used  in  carpentry  and  joinery."     "  If  the  trunks  of 
timber-bearing  trees  are  cut,  they  are  found  to  be  composed 
of  concentric  cylindrical  layers,  whose  cross- 
sections   form   rings,    separated    from   each 
other,  and  evidently  quite  distinct.     These 
layers  [Fig.  220]  are  formed,  one  each  year, 
during   the  period  of  growth   of  the   tree. 
They  vary  in^  thickness,  in  density,  and  in 
color,  according  to  the  rapidity  of  growth, 
the   length   of  the   season,   and   other   cir- 
cumstances which  may  change  from  year  to  year. 

"The  outer  portion  of  the  trunk  is  called  the  'sap-wood?  and 
it  is  usually  lighter  in  color,  and  less  strong  and  dense  than  the 
interior  portions,  or  heart-wood. 

"  The  circulation  of  sap  through  the  sap-wood  occurs  during 
favorable  weather.  In  winter  it  is  supposed  to  cease,  and  this 
period  of  checked  circulation  causes  the  lines  of  demarkation 
between  successive  annual  rings." 


1  Quotation  marks  under  this  heading  refer  to  Thurston's  "  Materials  of 
Engineering,"  Part  I. 


126  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

"The  heart-wood  is  nearly  or  quite  impervious  to  sap,  its 
vessels  being  closed  up,  and  the  wood  is  dense  and  hard."  It 
is  usually  far  more  durable  than  sap-wood. 

"  Different  kinds  of  trees,  and  different  individuals  of  the 
same  species,  have  different  proportions  of  sap-wood.  The 
slower-growing  trees  usually  contain  the  least." 

189.  "'Felling'  Timber  should  always,  if  possible,  be  prac- 
ticed at  the  period  of  maturity;  if  earlier,  the  wood  will  not 
have  acquired  it  greatest  strength  and  density,  and  will  con- 
tain too  great  a  proportion  of  sap-wood ;  if  later,  the  wood 
will  have  become  weakened  by  incipient  decay. 

"The  oak  is  said  to  reach  maturity  when  about  TOO  years  of 
age,  and  it  should  not  be  felled  at  less  than  60. 

"  Pine  timber  should  be  cut  at  from  70  to  100  years  of  age, 
and  ash  and  elm,  at  from  50  to  100. 

"  The  season  of  the  year  best  adapted  to  felling  timber  is 
either  midwinter  or  midsummer.  The  months  of  July  and 
August  are  often  selected,  as  at  those  seasons  the  sound  trees 
remain  green,  while  the  unsound  trees  are  then  turning  yellow. 
Healthy  trees  then  have  tops  in  full  foliage,  and  the  bark  is 
uniform  in  color,  while  unsound  trees  are  irregularly  covered 
with  leaves  of  varying  color,  having  a  rougher,  and  often  a 
loosened,  bark,  and  decaying  limbs." 

After  felling,  "  the  trunk  should  be  immediately  stripped  of  its 
bark,  and,  when  heart-wood  only  is  wanted,  the  sap-wood  re- 
moved as  soon  as  possible.  The  bark  is  often  removed  from 
trees  in  spring,  and  the  felling  deferred  till  autumn  or  winter. 
This  is  probably  the  best  course  to  pursue,  usually." 

190.  "Seasoning  Timber  is  simply  driving  out  the  sap  from 
its  pores  by  either  natural  or  artificial  means.     This  should 
always  be  done  as  gradually  as  possible,  otherwise  the  timber 
is  liable  to  crack  or  '  check,'  from  irregular  drying. 

"  Natural  or  air  seasoning  gives  the  best  results.     The  timber 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION.  I2/ 

should  in  all  cases  be  squared  as  soon  as  cut,  and  all  large  logs 
should  be  halved,  or  even  quartered.  It  is  then  piled  in  the 
seasoning  yard  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  protected  as  far  as 
possible  from  the  sun  and  rain.  It  should  be  placed  where  the 
air  may  circulate  freely  on  all  sides,  not  only  of  the  pile,  but  of 
each  log ;  bad  ventilation  is  sure  to  cause  rot.  After  remain- 
ing thus  for  some  months,  the  logs  may  be  cut  into  smaller 
joists,  if  needed  in  such  form,  or  into  planks  and  boards,  and 
again  piled  for  further  seasoning. 

"  For  heavy  work  two  years,  and  for  lighter  work,  four  years, 
is  sufficient  time  for  seasoning  boards ;  but  timber  is  rarely 
overseasoned." 

Artificial  methods  of  seasoning  by  means  of  high  tempera- 
ture, are  much  more  rapid  in  operation  than  the  natural  method 
just  described.  It  is  not  impossible,  in  this  manner,  to  season 
one-inch  material  in  two  days. 

191.  Shrinkage  in  timber  occurs  whenever  it  loses  moisture. 
In  the  process  of  seasoning,  shrinkage  may  reduce  the  width 
and  thickness  of  a  timber  fully  "eight  per  cent,"  but  it  has  little 
effect  on  its  length.     Wood  cannot  be  so  well  seasoned  as  not 
to  shrink  whenever  the  surrounding  dryness  is  increased.     It 
also  has  a  tendency  to  shrink  after  having  its  surface  removed, 
by  a  plane,  for  example.     This  is  due  to  the  reopening  of  the 
pores,  which  in  the  fibers  of  the  old  surface  had  become  closed 
by  contraction ;  in  this  way  new  passages  are  afforded  for  the 
escape  of  moisture. 

192.  Swelling  occurs  whenever  the  timber  absorbs  moisture. 
Most  woods  give  up  moisture  more  readily  than  they  receive 
it,  and,  therefore,  a  timber  will  not  swell  so  much  when  trans- 
ferred from  a  dry  atmosphere  to  a  moist  one,  as  a  similar  timber 
will  shrink  when  transferred  from  a  moist  atmosphere  to  a  dry 
one,  the  difference  in  the  atmospheric  conditions  being  the 
same.     A  slight  change,  however,  in  the  amount  of  surrounding 


128  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

moisture  is  sufficient  to  produce  a  perceptible  change  in  the 
dimensions  of  a  piece  of  wood.  As  a  rule,  the  softer  a  wood  is, 
the  more  readily  it  shrinks  and  swells. 

193.  Warping  in  wood  is  a  change  of  form  resulting  from 
unequal  shrinkage  or  swelling. 

Suppose  Fig.  220  to  represent  the  end  of  a  log.  It  will  be 
seen  that,  besides  the  lines  defining  the  annual  ring  layers,  there 
are  others  extending  from  the  center  in  all  directions ;  these 
are  known  to  the  botanist  as  medullary  rays,  and  sometimes 
to  the  carpenter  as  silver  rays.  In  some  woods,  they  are  ver) 
clearly  defined ;  in  others,  they  are  hardly  discernible.  The 
medullary  rays  serve  to  bind  together  the  annual  ring  layers 
and  are  not  very  much  shortened  by  shrinkage.  In  seasoning 
the  outer  ends  draw  together,  as  at  A  and  B,  Fig.  221,  anc 

Fig.  233 


produce  ragged  cracks,  which  sometimes  extend  from  the  ex- 
terior to  the  heart-wood,  as  shown. 

194.  If  a  log  is  cut  longitudinally  into  five  pieces,  the  mid- 
dle piece  will,  in  shrinking  (by  the  drawing  together  of  the 
medullary  rays),  become  thinner  at  the  edges  than  at  the 
center,  as  shown  by  Fig.  222.  The  other  four  pieces  wil 
warp  as  shown,  the  surface  of  each  piece,  which  in  the  log  was 
nearest  the  center,  becoming  the  convex  side  after  shrinking. 

The  shrinkage  of  a  square  joist  will  vary  according  to  its 
position  in  the  log  relative  to  the  heart.  (See  Fig.  223.)  Thus, 
it  will  be  seen  that,  in  the  cross-section  of  a  timber,  changes 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION.  I2Q 

resulting  from  shrinkage  can  be  foretold  whenever  the  character 
of  the  end  grain  can  be  determined. 

195.  Timbers  also  warp  in  the  direction  of  their  length. 
When  not  due  to  the  subjection  of  one  part  to  dryness  or 
dampness  to  the  exclusion  of  other  parts,  this  can  be  traced  to 
unevenness  in  the  grain,  which  exposes  a  greater  number  of 
fiber  ends  in  one  part  of  a  surface  than  another.  The  more 
fiber  ends  there  are  on  a  surface,  the  more  readily  moisture  will 
pass  into  or  out  of  the  wood,  and  the  more  pronounced  will  be 
the  local  shrinking  or  swelling, 
and  consequent  warping.  For 
example,  suppose  Fig.  224  to 
represent  the  edge  of  a  board 
having  the  grain  as  shown. 
Moisture  will  escape  more  readily  from  the  surfaces  marked  A 
and  A'  than  from  those  marked  B  and  B '.  The  contraction 
of  the  surfaces  A  and  A',  will  force  the  board  into  the  shape 
shown  by  the  dotted  line. 

The  most  fruitful  cause  of  warping,  however,  is  unequal 
exposure.  One  side  of  a  board  may  be  exposed  to  the  sun 
while  the  other  is  protected  from  it ;  the  side  exposed  will  be 
found  concave,  both  in  length  and  breadth.  Heat  from  a  stove 
or  dampness  from  the  ground  are  common  causes  of  warping. 

If  a  board  newly  planed  on  all  its  faces,  is  left  flat  on  the 
bench,  it  will  after  a  time  be  found  concave  in  its  upper  sur- 
face, a  result  due  to  the  greater  exposure  of  the  upper  surface 
as  compared  with  the  lower,  which  remained  in  contact  with 
the  bench.  A  piece  having  reasonably  straight  grain,  and 
which  has  been  planed  all  over,  should  be  left  on  its  edge  or 
end.  Pieces  of  irregular  shape,  that  are  required  to  be  made 
to  form  accurately,  are  best  when  cut  roughly  almost  to  the 
required  dimensions,  and  allowed  ample  time  to  shrink  and 
warp  before  being  finished  exactly  to  size. 


130  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

CARPENTRY.1 

196.  It  is  the  work  of  the  carpenter  to  raise  and  inclose  the 
frame  of  a  building,  to  construct  its  floors  and  roofs,  and  to 
complete  all  parts  which  give  stability  to  the  structure ;   the 
joiner  makes  the  doors  and  windows,  erects  the  stairs,  and  pro- 
vides such  interior  woodwork  as  will  finish  the  building  as  a 
habitation.     A  single  mechanic  may  perform  almost  every  kind 
of  work  required  in  the  construction  of  a  building,  thus  elimi- 
nating this  distinction  of  trades ;  but  for  convenience  in  classi- 
fication, we  may  imagine  the  work  of  the  carpenter  and  that 
of  the  joiner  to  be  quite  distinct. 

It  will  be  understood  that  neither  carpentry  nor  joinery 
is  confined  to  house-building.  While  all  bench  work  may 
properly  be  classed  as  joinery,  it  involves  forms  and  principles 
that  are  the  logical  outgrowth  of  carpentry.  For  this  reason, 
in  the  following  consideration  of  joints,  there  are  presented, 
first,  those  belonging  to  carpentry,  which  will  include  such  as 
are  used  in  uniting  timbers,  as  in  a  frame  for  a  building ;  and, 
secondly,  those  belonging  to  joinery,  which  will  include  such  as 
are  used  in  joining  small  planks  or  boards.  This  classification 
cannot  be  rigidly  adhered  to,  but  it  will  serve  the  purpose  of 
the  following  pages. 

197.  Any  two  timbers  may  be  united  in  the  direction  of 
their  length,  or  they  may  be  united  at  an  angle. 

Timbers  united  in  the  direction  of  their  length  are  usually 

Kig.325  Fig.  22G 


subject  to  compressional  strain,  which  has  a  tendency  to  reduce 
their  length,  as  indicated  by  Fig.  225  ;    or  tensional  strain, 

1  Tredgold's  "  Carpentry,"  and  "  Notes  on  Building  Construction  "  pub- 
lished by  Rivingtons,  have  furnished  many  of  the  facts  presented  under 
Carpentry  and  under  Joinery. 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION. 


which  has  a  tendency  to  increase  their  length,  Fig.  226  ;  or 
cross-strain,  which  has  a  tendency  to  bend  them,  Fig.  227  ; 
or  to  two  of  these  strains  at  the  same  time. 

198.    A  Timber  subjected  to  cross-strain  must  always  bend. 

The  fibers  forming  that  surface  which  is  convex  or  has  a 
tendency  to  become  so  (as  the  lower  surface,  A,  Fig.  227) 
will  be  subject  to  tensional  strain,  while  the  fibers  forming 
the  opposite  surface  will  be  brought  under  compressional 
strain.  This  is  shown  by  Fig.  228,  A  representing  a  straight 


Fig.SST 

0 


Fig.  338 


timber,  and  B  the  same  timber  bent.  It  follows,  then,  that 
somewhere  between  the  compressed  surface  and  the  ex- 
tended surface  there  will  be  a  line  which  is  subject  to  neither 
compressional  nor  tensional  strain ;  such  a  line  is  called  the 
neutral  axis  of  a  timber,  and  will  be  located  with  sufficient 
accuracy  for  the  purposes  of  this  work,  if  drawn  midway  be- 
tween the  upper  and  lower  surfaces,  as  shown  by  the  dotted 
line  CD,  Fig.  228. 

In  the  timber  that  has  been  forced  into  a  curved  form,  Fig. 
228,  the  fibers  within  the  neutral  axis  are  under  no  strain  ex- 
cepting that  required  to  hold  the  compressed  portion  to  the 
extended  portion ;  but  the  conditions  are  found  to  change 
rapidly  as  the  examination  extends  to  fibers  more  and  more 
remote  from  this  axis.  In  other  words,  the  strength  of  such 
a  timber  increases  rapidly  as  its  depth  increases.  For  example, 
if  Fig.  227  represents  a  2"  x  4"  timber  (2"  wide  and  4"  deep) 
supported  at  B,  B,  and  capable  of  sustaining  200  pounds  at  C, 


132  BENCH  WORK  IN  WOOD. 

it  can  be  shown  that,  if  the  depth  is  doubled,  leaving  the  width 
the  same,  by  substituting  a  2"  X  8"  timber,  it  will  sustain  four 
times  the  original  load,  or  800  pounds ;  while  if  the  width  is 
doubled,  leaving  the  depth  the  same,  by  substituting  a  4"  x  4" 
timber,  it  will  sustain  only  twice  the  original  load,  or  400 
pounds.  The  law  is  that  the  strength  of  timbers  subject  to 
cross-strain,  varies  as  the  width,  and  as  the  square  of  the 
depth.1 

199.  Rankine  has  given  five  principles  to  be  observed  in 
designing  joints  and  fastenings.  They  are  as  follows  :  — 

1.  "To  cut  the  joints  and  arrange  the  fastenings  so  as  to 
weaken  the  pieces  of  timber  that  they  connect  as  little  as  pos- 
sible." 

2.  "To  place  each  abutting  surface  in  a  joint  as  nearly  as 
possible  perpendicular  to  the  pressure  which  it  has  to  transmit." 

3.  "To  proportion  the  area  of  each  surface  to  the  pressure 
which  it  has  to  bear,  so  that  the  timber  may  be  safe  against 
injury  under  the  heaviest  load  which  occurs  in  practice,  and 
to  form  and  fit  every  pair  of  such  surfaces  accurately,  in  order 
to  distribute  the  stress  uniformly." 

4.  "To  proportion  the  fastenings  so  that  they  may  be  of 
equal  strength  with  the  pieces  which  they  connect." 

5.  "To  place  the  fastenings  in  each  piece  of  timber,  so  that 
there  shall  be  sufficient  resistance  to  the  giving  way  of  the  joint 
by  the  fastenings  shearing  or  crushing  their  way  through  the 
timber." 

Complicated  forms  of  joints  are  likely  to  violate  Rule  3. 

1  By  what  has  been  given,  it  will  be  seen  that  in  any  body  of  material 
the  portions  most  affected  in  resisting  cross-strain  are  those  lying  near  the 
upper  and  lower  surfaces,  Fig.  227.  In  view  of  this  fact,  parts  that  are  to 
receive  a  cross-strain,  especially  if  of  iron,  are,  in  important  structures, 
formed  to  present  a  large  amount  of  material  near  these  surfaces.  A  rail- 
road rail  or  an  I-beam  are  simple  illustrations;  a  bridge  truss  is  an  elabo- 
ration of  this  principle. 


WOOD  CONSTRUCTION.  133 

JOINTS  CONNECTING  TIMBERS  IN  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THEIR 
LENGTH. 

200.  A  Lapped  Joint,  shown  by  Fig.  229,  fastened  either  by 
straps  A  or  bolts  B,  is  clumsy,  but  very  strong. 

201.  A  Fished  Joint  in  its  simplest  form  is  shown  by  Fig. 
230,  and  is  so  called  because  of  the  two  pieces  marked  A  called 
"fish-pieces  "  or  "fish-plates" 

fig.  23Q  Fig.  23O 

g 


Fish-pieces  may  be  of  either  wood  or  iron,  and  may  be 
employed  to  form  the  fished  joint  shown  in  Fig.  230,  or  applied 
to  more  complicated  joints  to  increase  their  strength. 

When  subject  to  compressional  strain,  a  fished  joint  should 
have  four  plates,  one  on  each  face.  When  subject  to  tensional 
strain,  the  plates,  if  of  iron,  may  be  indented,  A,  Fig.  231  ;  or, 
if  of  hard  wood,  the  ends  may  be  tabled,  B,  Fig.  231,  or  keys 
inserted  as  shown  by  A  and  B,  Fig.  232.  Other  things  being 


equal,  if  the  number  of  keys  is  doubled,  the  thickness  of  each 
may  be  diminished  one-half  without  reducing  the  strength  of 
the  joint,  since  the  total  amount  of  abutting  surface  will  remain 
the  same. 

NOTE. —The  student  should  observe  carefully  the  position  of  the  lines 
in  the  following  representations  of  joints,  so  that  he  may  clearly  see  the 
reasons  for  the  different  methods  of  construction.  He  should  first  look  for 
the  abutting  surfaces,  and  then  note  their  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  joint. 


134  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

For  cross-strain,  the  fish-pieces  should  be  on  the  sides  of  the 
joint,  as  shown  by  Fig.  233. 

3Tig.  333 


The  bolts  used  for  securing  fish-pieces,  or  employed  as  fas- 
tenings for  any  joint,  should  be  placed  checker-wise,  Fig.  233, 
so  that  no  two  will  cut  the  same  cross-section. 

Fished  joints  are  often  used  in  heavy  construction.  By  a 
suitable  proportion  of  parts,  the  joint  can  be  made  almost  as 
strong  as  the  timbers  it  connects. 

202.  Scarfed  Joints   are  those  in  which  the  two  timbers 
united  are  so  cut  and  fitted  as  to  make  the  joint  uniform  in 
size  with  the  timbers.     In  determining  the  form  of  any  scarf, 
the  principles  already  given   (199)   should  be  adhered  to  as 
closely  as  possible.     Some  scarfs  by  their  form  are  self-sustain- 
ing, but,  compared  with  the  timbers  they  unite,  are  weak,  and 
are  seldom  used  unless  strengthened  by  bolts,  or  by  bolts  and 
fish-pieces. 

203.  A  scarfed  joint  for  resisting  compression  is  shown  in 
its  simplest  form  by  Fig.  234.     When  strengthened  by  bolts 
and  fish-pieces,  it  forms  an  exceedingly  good  joint. 


Fig.  2  35 


204.  A  scarfed  joint  for  resisting  tension  is  shown  by  Fig. 
235.  The  key  A  supplies  the  abutting  surface  to  receive  the 
strain  tending  to  open  the  joint ;  in  thickness  it  is  equal  to 
one-third  that  of  the  timber.  In  practice  this  joint  is  not  often 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION. 


135 


employed  without  fish-pieces.     Fig.  236  shows  a  modification 
of  235,  which  will  serve  excellently  for  tensional  strain. 


205.  A  scarfed  joint  for  resisting  cross-strain  is  subject 
to  compressional  strain  in  its  upper  portion,  and  to  tensional 
strain  in  its  lower  portion  (198),  and  must,  therefore,  embody 
forms  adapted  to  resisting  both,  as  shown  by  Fig.  237.  A 
single  fish- piece  is  usually  added  to  the  lower  side  of  the  joint. 

Fig.,237 


206.  A  scarfed  joint  for  resisting  tension  and  compression 
may  be  made,  as  shown  by  Fig.  238  ;  or,  less  complicated,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  239  ;  or,  more  secure,  as  shown  by  Fig.  240. 


Fig.  S38 


lTig.230 


207.   A  scarfed  joint  for  resisting  tension  and  cross-strain 
is  sometimes  made  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  241,  but  this  form  is 


Fig.  240 


not  so  good  as  the  one  shown  by  Fig.  233,  if  in  the  latter  case 
the  fish-pieces  are  indented. 


!^6  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

JOINTS  CONNECTING  TIMBERS  AT  RIGHT  ANGLES. 

208.  Halving,  Fig.  242,  forms  a  very  simple  joint,  and  when 
well  fastened,  a  strong  one.  It  is  frequently  employed. 

Beveled-halving,  Fig.  243,  is  sometimes  resorted  to  with  the 
view  of  allowing  the  load  imposed  upon  A  in  the  direction  of 
the  arrow,  to  hold  the  joint  together.  Under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, this  joint  is  likely  to  prove  weak,  because  of  a  lack  of 
material  at  the  shoulder  near  the  letter  A. 


3Tig.  244 


Fig.  343 


iris.243 


1 


J 


209.  Notching.  —  In  placing  several  timbers  upon  another 
which  is  to  support  them,  in  the  manner  represented  by  Fig. 
244,  it  is  usually  desired  that  the  tops  of  the  supported  timbers 
be  uniform  in  height.  This  would  not  be  accomplished  by 
simply  placing  them  in  a  row,  because  timbers  of  the  same 
nominal  size  vary  in  their  breadth  and  depth.  The  ends  of 
the  deeper  ones  must  therefore  be  cut  or  "  notched,"  as  shown 
by  Fig.  244,  to  make  them  agree  in  depth  with  the  lightest 
timber  of  all.  Properly  speaking,  this  is  a  preparation  for  the 
bearing  of  one  timber  on  another,  and  not  a  joint ;  but  if  the 
end  of  the  supported  timber  is  allowed  to  project,  as  repre- 
sented by  Fig.  245,  a  true  joint  is  made. 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION.  13 

Double-notching  requires  a  notch  in  both  timbers,  Fig.  24^ 


210.  Cogging  is  represented  by  Fig.   247.     It   has  som 
advantage  over  notching  in  point  of  strength,  inasmuch  as  th 
timber  B  has  its  full  depth  over  its  support.     The  "  cog  "  ^ 
makes  the  union  between  the  two  timbers,  as  a  joint,  quite  a 
satisfactory  as  the  double  notch. 

If  the  surrounding  conditions  require  it,  the  cog  may  b 
formed  near  one  edge,  instead  of  in  the  middle  of  the  timber. 

211.  Mortise-and-Tenon  Joints.  —  A  tenon  is  a  projectio 
made  on  the  end  of  a  timber  to  form  part  of  a  joint ;  a  mortis 
is  an  opening  intended  to  receive  a  tenon.     In  Fig.  248,  T  \ 


.  248 


Fig.  347 


the  tenon ;  M,  the  mortise ;  R,  the  root  of  the  tenon ;  S,  *! 
its  shoulders ;  and  c,  c,  are  sometimes  called  the  abuttin 
cheeks  of  the  mortise. 

212.  When  a  vertical  timber  meets  a  horizontal  timbei 
the  object  of  the  joint  is  simply  to  prevent  displacement ;  am 
a  small,  short  tenon,  sometimes  called  a  "stub  tenon,"  i 
usually  employed.  In  this  case,  the  tenon  should  not  reac 
the  bottom  of  the  mortise,  but  the  strain  should  be  taken  b 


138 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


the  shoulders.  Sometimes,  instead  of  making  a  stub  tenon, 
the  whole  end  of  one  timber  is  let  into  another,  and  the  first 
is  then  said  to  be  "  housed." 

213.  When  a  horizontal  timber  meets  a  vertical  timber,  the 
joint  may  be  formed  as  shown  by  Fig.  249,  or  made  much 
stronger,  if,  in  addition  to  the  tenon,  it  is  "  blocked,"  Fig.  250, 
or  housed  as  shown  by  Fig.  251. 

Fig.  24O 


214.  When  one  horizontal  timber  meets  another,  it  is  a 
common  practice,  if  the  proportions  of  the  pieces  are  favorable, 
to  employ  a  double  mortise  and  -tenon,  Fig.  252,  A  being 


Fig.  251 


1 


IT-IS. 


END. 

supported  by  B.  This  method  cannot  be  recommended,  how- 
ever, because  B  is  very  much  weakened  by  the  mortises. 
With  reference  to  B  only,  the  best  place  for  the  mortise  is  on 
the  neutral  axis  (in  the  center  of  the  timber),  while  with  refer- 
ence to  A  only,  the  tenon  should  be  on  its  lower  edge,  that  it 
may  be  re-enforced  by  all  the  material  above  it.  If  timbers 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION. 


of  equal  depth  are  thus  joined,  they  will  appear  as  shown 
Fig-  253  '>  but  this  combination,  while  strong,  is  not  alw; 
practicable,  because  of  surrounding  conditions.  For  this  r< 
son,  both  mortise  and  tenon  are  often  placed  in  unfavoral 
positions,  and  the  strength  of  the  joint  sacrificed.  Sometin 
the  form  shown  by  Fig.  254  is  used,  but  this  has  little  in 

Fig.SSf 


favor,  except  the  ease  with  which  it  is  made.  A  better  co 
bination  is  shown  by  Fig.  255,  which,  although  less  perfect  a 
joint,  may  serve  the  purpose  quite  as  well  as  Fig.  253  if  1 
timber  is  long  between  supports.  Tusk  tenons  are  used 
overcome  the  difficulties  presented  by  the  forms  shown  abc 
when  employed  in  heavy  construction.  This  arrangement 
surfaces,  Fig.  256,  allows  the  mortise  to  be  in  the  center  of  1 
timber,  and  to  be  small ;  and  it  also  allows  the  tenon,  by  me; 
of  the  tusk  T,  to  present  a  low  abutting  surface  on  the  si 
ported  timber.  Its  strength  and  compactness  fully  compens; 
for  the  difficulty  of  fitting  it. 


Fig.SSG 


MlSCELLANEOUS   JOINTS. 

215.  Oblique  Mortises  and  Tenons  may  be  used  to  j< 
two  timbers  meeting  each  other  at  an  oblique  angle.  Fig.  2 
shows  a  common  form  in  which  the  abutting  surface,  rep 
sented  by  the  dotted  line  A,  is  perpendicular  to  the  cheeks 


140 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


the  mortise,  and  the  strain  transmitted  in  the  direction  of  the 
arrow,  is  divided  between  the  surfaces  represented  by  the 
dotted  line  A  and  the  full  line  B.  A  bearing  along  the  latter 
line  becomes  unreliable  when  the  timbers  shrink,  or  when,  by 
the  settling  of  connected  parts,  the  surfaces  change  their  rela- 
tive position.  For  this  reason  it  is  better  to  depend  mainly  on 
the  line  A,  which  is  less  affected  by  the  causes  mentioned.  To 
take  the  strain  wholly,  A  should  be  at  right  angles  to  the  length 
of  the  tenon-bearing  timber,  Fig.  258.  This,  however,  while 
apparently  a  well-formed  joint,  is  not  a  strong  one,  for  the 


tenon,  which  is  usually  equal  to  but  one-third  the  width  of 
the  timber,  must  alone  receive  the  thrust.  To  relieve  the  tenon 
by  increasing  the  area  of  the  abutting  surface,  the  end  of  A 
may  be  housed  as  shown  by  Fig.  259,  or  the  joint  may  be 
strengthened  by  bolts  or  straps. 

The  mortise  for  the  joint  shown  by  Fig.  258  is  usually  made 
of  the  outline  abc,  and  the  triangle  a! be  is  not  filled.  This  is 
done  because  it  is  easier  to  cut  down  the  line  be  than  the  line 
a'c.  There  seems  to  be  no  objection  to  this  practice. 

Fig.  260 


216.  A  Bridle-Joint  is  represented  by  Fig.  260.  It  pos- 
sesses the  advantage  of  having  its  parts  so  exposed  that  any 
inaccuracy  in  the  fit  is  always  apparent.  An  oblique  form  of 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION.  14! 

bridle-joint,  Fig.  261,  is  certainly  worthy  of  study.  The  widtf 
of  the  bridle,  B,  Fig.  260,  should  not  exceed  one-fifth  th< 
width  of  the  timber. 

217.  A  Tie- Joint  is  shown  by  Fig.  262.  The  timber  A  ii 
prevented  from  falling  away  in  the  direction  indicated  by  th< 
arrow,  by  the  insertion  of  the  tie  B.  The  joint  illustrated  b] 
Fig.  197  may  be  made  to  serve  the  same  purpose. 


END.  SIDE. 


Fig.  263 


1 


218.  A  Chase-Mortise  is  a  mortise  elongated  as  shown  b; 
Fig.  263.  Its  purpose  is  to  admit  a  cross- timber  betweei 
two  timbers  already  fixed.  When  the  cross-timber  is  in  place 
that  portion  of  the  mortise  which  is  unoccupied  may  be  filled 
and  the  joint  thus  made  secure. 


JOINERY. 

219.  The  work  of  the  joiner,  unlike  that  of  the  carpenter,  ii 
usually  where  it  must  bear  the  test  of  close  examination.  It  is 
therefore,  necessary  that  the  several  pieces  of  which  a  whol< 
work  is  formed,  be  united  by  joints  that  are  neat  in  appearance 
or  so  made  as  to  be  hidden  from  sight.  Such  joints  must  b< 
strong  even  where  there  is  apparently  but  little  strain  upor 
them.  Otherwise,  the  parts  are  likely  to  become  loose  frorr 
shrinking  and  swelling,  and  to  expose  unsightly  seams. 

Some  of  the  joints  already  described,  while  particularly  adaptec 
to  uniting  timbers  in  carpentry,  may  under  given  conditions  b< 


142  BENCH   WORK    IN    WOOD. 

equally  suitable  for  the  smaller  work  in  joinery.  It  may  also 
be  true  that  some  that  are  treated  in  connection  with  joinery, 
are  quite  as  useful  in  carpentry.  As  already  stated,  the  classi- 
fication here  used  only  serves  to  fix  in  mind  a  few  general 
principles  governing  the  adaptation  of  joints ;  it  cannot  be 
arbitrarily  adhered  to. 

The  rule  in  carpentry  that  makes  the  simplest  form  of  joint 
best,  does  not  always  hold  in  joinery,  because  the  methods  of 
the  joiner  admit  of  greater  accuracy,  and  also  because  the 
pieces  of  material  used  are  smaller,  and  consequently  le'ss 
affected  by  shrinkage. 

BEADS  AND  MOLDINGS. 

220.  Beads.  —  A  single-quirked  bead is  shown  by  Fig.  264,  a 
being  the  quirk;  a  double-quirked  bead  is  shown  by  Fig.  265, 

Fig.  265 


and  a  staff,  or  angle,  bead  by  Fig.  266.  The  term  reeding  is 
applied  to  a  succession  of  beads,  as  shown  by  Fig.  267.  A 
bead  is  said  to  be  stuck  when  it  is  formed  on  the  piece  of 
material  on  which  it  is  used,  and  planted  when  it  is  formed  on 


Trig.  366 


a  separate  piece  and  glued  or  nailed  in  place.     The  size  of  a 
bead  is  indicated  by  the  distance  A,  Fig.  264. 

221.  Beads  are  sometimes  used  wholly  for  ornament,  but 
they  are  designed  chiefly  to  conceal  cracks  by  the  shadows 
they  cast.  It  is  a  principle  in  joinery,  that  when  two  boards 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION. 


are  to  be  joined  they  must  be  made  as  one  complete  board, 
with  the  joint  so  concealed  that  no  crack  is  left,  either  when 
first  made  or  after  shrinkage  ;  or  there  should  be  a  very  decided 
crack,  which  will  appear  to  have  been  made  intentionally.  The 
first  kind  of  joint  is  made  by  means  of  glue ;  but,  as  the  boards 
forming  a  surface  of  considerable  width  must  have  some  free- 
dom of  movement  on  account  of  shrinking  and  swelling  tenden- 
cies, it  follows  that  when  large  surfaces  are  to  be  covered,  glued 
joints  cannot  be  used.  Under  such  circumstances,  it  is  found 
best  to  make  no  attempt  at  a  close  joint,  but  to  allow  the 


F-ig.  368 


P'ig.  2O9 


pieces  to  shrink  and  swell  as  they  may,  and  depend  upon 
beads  to  conceal  the  cracks.  Thus  the  joint  shown  by  Fig.  268 
would  seem  to  have  been  intended  for  a  close  fit ;  but  since  it 
is  not,  the  opening  is  allowed  to  remain,  and  a  bead  applied, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  269.  The  crack  is  thus  converted  into  a  quirk 
of  a  bead,  and  is  not  noticeable  except  on  close  inspection. 

222.  A  chamfer  is  a  narrow  surface  produced,  usually,  at 
an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  with  two  other  surfaces.     Like 
the  bead,  it  may  be  used  for  ornament,  or  for  disguising  cracks 
as  shown  by  Fig.  270. 

223.  A  stop  chamfer  is  one  which  does  not  extend  the  full 
length  of  the  piece  on  which  it  is  formed.     See  A,  Fig.  212. 


144  BENCH   WORK    IN   WOOD. 

224.  Moldings,  while  of  the  same  character  with  beads,  are 
larger  and  often  much  more  complex  in  form.     They  may  be 
stuck  or  planted.     Among  the  most  simple  forms  is  the  ogee, 
Fig.  271,  which  is  frequently  used  as  a  finish  for  the  edge  of  a 
projecting  board  —  a  table  top,  for  example. 

225.  A  round  nose,  Fig.  272,  is,  perhaps,  the  simplest  of 
all,  and  is  especially  useful  where  a  projecting  board  is  subject 
to  usage  severe  enough  to  destroy  sharp  angles  or  small  details, 
as  is  the  "  tread  "  of  a  stair. 

226.  From  a  few  simple  forms,  of  which  the  two  shown  are 
types,  have  sprung  the  variety  of  styles,  which,  for  the  most 
part,  have  no  designation  but  the  number  given  them  by  the 


manufacturer.  While  most  of  them  may  be  stuck,  as  is  the 
ogee,  Fig.  271,  and  the  common  forms  shown  by  Fig.  273, 
they  are  generally  planted.  Fig.  274  shows  a  molding  at  A, 
planted  on  a  plain  surface  ;  at  B,  one  planted  in  an  angle,  and 


at  C,  a  rabbeted  (bolection)  molding  which  overlaps  one  of 
the  pieces  forming  the  angle. 

A  fillet^  is  a  light  strip  of  material  used  in  a  joint  as  a 
fastening,  or,  in  connection  with  beads  and  moldings,  as  a 
means  of  ornamentation. 

227.  In  joining  boards,  use  is  frequently  made  of  some  outside 
support,  which,  though  not  considered  a  part  of  the  joint,  is 

1  Fillet,  or  thread. 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION.  145 

often  the  one  element  that  makes  the  adaptation  of  the  joint  pos- 
sible. For  example,  two  boards  of  a  floor  may  be  joined  to  each 
other  in  a  variety  of  ways ;  but  they  are  both  supported  and 
retained  in  position  by  being  fastened  to  the  "  flooring  joist." 
A  consideration  of  the  joint  between  the  boards,  however,  need 
not  involve  the  joist  except  as  a  fastening. 


HEADING-JOINTS,  OR  JOINTS  FOR  UNITING  PIECES  IN  THE 
DIRECTION  OF  THEIR  LENGTH. 

228.  The  length  to  which  boards  may  be  sawed,  is,  in  prac- 
tice, limited  only  by  man's  ability  to  handle  and  transport  them 
with  economy.  For  most  purposes,  the  lengths  of  from  ten  to 
twenty  feet  which  are  supplied  by  the  trade,  serve  as  well  as 
longer  ones.  They  can  be  handled  more  easily  —  in  other 
words,  more  cheaply  —  than  boards  of  thirty  or  forty  feet. 

Fig.  275  shows  a  square  heading-joint,  which  is  usually  "cut 
under  "  a  little,  as  indicated  by  dotted  lines,  to  insure  a  close 
joint  on  the  surface. 

ITig.  275  wig,  z>7& 


A  splayed  heading-joint  is  shown  by  Fig.  276.  As  a  joint, 
this  will  seem  more  perfect  than  Fig.  275,  but  it  is  more  difficult 
to  make,  and  the  latter  is  in  most  places  quite  as  satisfactory. 

JOINTS  FOR  UNITING  PIECES  IN  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THEIR  WIDTH. 

229.  Joints  of  this  class  have  two  offices  to  perform  :  first,  to 
prevent  shrinkage  from  making  an  open  joint ;  and,  secondly, 
to  distribute  to  adjoining  boards,  strain  that  may  be  received 
by  any  one  of  them  at  points  between  supports. 


1^6  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

230.  Fig.  277  shows  at  A  a  plain  butt-joint,  which  has  no 
provision  against  opening,  and  in  which  the  boards  do  not  sup- 
port each  other ;  it  is,  really,  no  joint  at  all.  The  same  figure 
shows  at  B,  C,  and  D,  respectively,  a  filleted  joint,  a  rabbeted 
joint,  and  a  matched  joint.  Any  of  these  may  be  beaded  as 
shown  by  Fig.  269.  The  marring  of  the  surface  by  nail  heads 
may  be  prevented  by  "secret  nailing,"  which  is  shown  in 
Fig.  277. 


Fig.  37T 
B  C 


',      .' 

JOIST 


Joints  of  this  class  which  have  no  support  outside  of  them- 
selves, must  be  held  by  glue. 

231.  A  Glued  Butt-joint,  shown  by  Fig.  278,  if  well  made, 
will  be  quite  as  strong  in  the  softer  woods  as  a  glued  matched 
or  a  glued  filleted  joint.  It  is  difficult,  however,  especially  if  the 
boards  are  long,  to  keep  the  two  pieces  forming  the  plain  joint 
in  proper  position  while  the  glue  is  setting.  Even  if  they  are 
clamped,  they  are  almost  sure  to  slip,  so  that  when  the  joint  has 
finally  become  firm,  the  boards  may  have  assumed  a  position 
similar  to  that  shown,  Fig.  278.  The  fillet,  and  the  tongue  and 

j  Fig.  3T9 


groove  (B  and  D,  Fig.  277)  are  useful  in  keeping  the  parts  in 
place  until  the  glue  has  hardened.  Dowels  may  be  used  for 
the  same  purpose,  Fig.  279.  If  they  are  placed  at  short  inter- 
vals, and  are  well  fitted,  they  will  add  strength  to  the  joint. 

232.   Cleating.  —  A  cleat  is   a   piece  of  material  fastened 
across  the  width  of  a  board  to  prevent  its  warping ;  if  the  sur- 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION. 


face  is  composed  of  several  pieces,  the  cleat  is  also  designed  to 
hold  them  together.  It  may  be  applied  to  the  back  of  the 
pieces,  as  shown  by  Fig.  280,  or  across  the  ends,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  281.  As  the  grain  of  the  cleat  is  at  right  angles  to  that  of 
the  surface  to  which  it  is  fastened,  and  since  wood  shrinks  and 
swells  more  across  the  grain  than  with  it,  there  is  likely  to  be 


Fig.  28O 


Fig.  381 


some  movement  of  one  on  the  other,  and  the  fastenings  used 
to  secure  the  cleat  should  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  allow  it. 
Otherwise,  the  edges  of  the  board  will  be  rigidly  held,  and 
shrinkage  will  result  in  the  formation  of  large  cracks,  by  the 
splitting  of  the  board  somewhere  near  the  center.  Screws  are 
undoubtedly  the  best  fastenings,  as  they  will  yield,  to  some 
degree,  without  becoming  loosened.  Nails  frequently  answer 
every  purpose ;  and  dowels  are  sometimes  used.  Glue  is  un- 
serviceable. When  it  is  used  alone,  the  cleats  soon  drop  off; 
and  when  used  with  other  fastenings,  it  either  gives  way 
entirely,  or  breaks  at  intervals,  causing  local  cracks. 

233.  Side-cleating,  Fig.  280,  is  the  more  effective  of  the  two 
methods,  because  the  cleat  may  be  larger  and,  for  this  reason, 
the  fastenings  be  applied  to  better  advantage.  But,  when  ex- 
posed to  view,  side  cleats  are  unsightly,  and  are  often  objec- 
tionable because  they  increase  the  thickness  of  the  piece  as  a 
whole.  The  proportions  of  the  cleat  may  vary  with  the  duty 
expected  of  it.  Other  things  being  equal,  A  will  be  more  effec- 


148 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


tive  than  B.  It  is  more  difficult,  however,  to  put  screws  or 
other  fastenings  through  A  than  through  B ' ;  either  may  be 
fastened  by  screws  inserted  from  the  face  of  the  board. 

234.  End  cleats  are  neat  in  appearance,  and,  when  decided 
warping  tendencies  are  not  to  be  overcome,  do  good  service. 
To  supplement  the  fastenings,  a  narrow  tongue  may  be  formed 
on  the  board  to  fit  a  corresponding  groove  in  the  cleat,  as 
shown  in  connection  with  B,  Fig.  281. 

235.  If  only  one  surface  of  a  cleated  board  is  to  be  made 

use  of, — a  drawing  board,  for  example, 
—  the  strain  on  the  cleat  may  be  les- 
sened by  a  succession  of  saw  cuts  on  the 
lower  side,  extending  the  length  of  the 
board,  as  shown  by  Fig.  282.  By  this 
means,  the  warping  tendency  of  a  seven- 
SecttonA.B.  eigntns-inch  board  may  be  reduced  to 
that  of  a  quarter-inch,  or  even  a  one- 
eighth-inch  board. 

JOINTS  FOR  UNITING  PIECES  AT  RIGHT  ANGLES. 

236.  Butt-Joints.— A  plain  joint  of  this  kind  is  represented 
by  Fig.  283.  The  joint  may  be  concealed  by  a  bead  as  indi 
cated  by  dotted  lines ;  and,  when  the  material  is  thick  and  it  is 
desirable  to  prevent  an  exposure  of  end  grain  as  much  as  possi- 
ble, the  joint  may  be  modified,  as  shown  by  Fig.  284  This 
torm  also  may  be  beaded.  When  great  strength  is  demanded, 

285 


a  housed  joint  may  be  made,  Fig.  285.     The  sides  and  end's  of 
troughs  which  are  required  to  be  water-tight,  are  frequently 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION. 


149 


made  in  this  way.  If  there  can  be  no  projection,  as  A,  Fig. 
285,  this  joint  may  be  modified  as  shown  by  Fig.  286,  but  it 
will  lose  in  strength. 

237.  Miter-Joint.  —  Fig.  287  shows  a  plain  miter-joint.  Its 
sole  recommendation  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  exposes  no  end 
grain,  for,  from  a  mechanical  point  of  view,  it  is  weak  and 
faulty :  weak,  because  difficult  to  fasten,  and  faulty,  because,  as 
the  two  pieces  forming  the  joint  shrink,  each  will  become 
narrower  on  the  lines  A,  A,  and  produce  the  change  of  form 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines  B  and  B'.  As  a  result  of  this  change, 
either  the  angle  C  between  the  two  pieces  must  become  smaller, 
or  the  joint  must  open,  forming  a  wide  crack  on  the  inside, 
which  is  represented  by  the  triangle  BDB'. 

'Miter-joints  between  two  pieces  of  different  thickness   are 


Fig.  287 


Fig.  288 


Fig.  289 


made  in  the  form  illustrated  by  Fig.  288.  Occasionally  this  is 
used  when  the  pieces  are  of  the  same  thickness,  Fig.  289  ;  for 
while  it  has  the  advantages  of  the  plain  miter-joint,  it  is  stronger 
and  less  affected  by  shrinkage. 


Fig.  QOO 


Fig.  201 


238.  Glue,  and  brads  or  nails,  the  usual  fastenings  for  miter- 
joints,  may  be  supplemented  by  a  fillet  inserted  as  shown  by 
A,  Fig.  290,  or  by  small  pieces  inserted  in  saw  cuts  which  are 
made  across  the  angle  of  the  joint,  as  shown  by  A,  Fig.  291. 


j^O  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

239.  Dovetail-Joints  have  already  been  discussed  (171-176). 
They  can  be  made  much  stronger  than  any  of  the  other  angle 
joints   herein  considered.      The   plain  dovetail,   Fig.    199,   is 
sometimes  objectionable  because  it  exposes  end  grain,  but  the 
checkered  appearance  of  a  well-made  joint  almost  counterbal- 
ances this  objection.     In  the  lap-dovetail-joint,  however,  Fig. 
201,  the  end  grain  disappears  from  one  face,  and  in  the  blind 
dovetail,  Fig.  203,  from  both  faces.     The  blind  dovetail  cer- 
tainly combines  all  that  could  be  desired  as  far  as  strength  and 
appearance  are  concerned ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  make. 

240.  Mortise-and-Tenon  Joints  in  joinery  are  different  from 
those  employed  in  carpentry,  only  in  the  proportions  of  their 
parts,  and  the  accuracy  with  which  they  are  fitted.     When  the 
thickness  B,  Fig.  292,  of  the  pieces  joined  is  the  same,  the 

Fig.  203 


thickness  A,  of  a  simple  tenon  may  vary  from  one-third  to 
two-thirds  that  of  the  piece  on  which  it  is  formed,  practice 
tending  toward  the  larger  figure  ;  and  its  breadth  C  ought  not 
to  exceed  seven  times  its  thickness.  For  the  thickness  given, 
Fig.  292  shows  a  tenon  of  the  greatest  breadth  allowable.  The 
breadth  is  thus  limited  because  the  sides  of  the  mortise  derive 
their  support  from  the  solid  material  at  its  ends,  and  they 
become  too  weak  for  good  service  when  the  limit  named  is 

Fig.  2O3 


exceeded.  Again,  the  tenon,  if  too  broad,  will  not  stand  the 
pressure  of  wedging,  but  is  likely  to  become  distorted,  thus 
putting  additional  strain  on  the  mortise,  and  frequently  causing 
it  to  split.  See  Fig.  293. 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION. 


241.  When  the  piece  on  which  the  tenon  is  to  be  formed  is 
very  broad,  a  single  tenon,  if  employed,  leaves  wide  shoulders, 
AB,  Fig.  294.  These  are  open  to  objection,  because  of  the 
tendency  of  the  tenon  piece  to  warp  so  that  its  surface  at 
D  will  not  agree  with  the  surface  of  the  piece  it  joins,  at  C. 
Under  such  circumstances  a  double  tenon,  Fig.  295,  may  be 
used.  This  will  give  the  support  that  is  needed,  and  will  not 
violate  the  principle  laid  down  in  240.  Double  tenons,  how- 
ever, while  they  obviate  one  difficulty  introduce  another.  The 
tenons  are  unyielding,  and,  if  the  piece  is  very  wide,  its  shrink- 
age is  likely  to  produce  a  crack  between  them,  as  denoted  by 
the  dotted  lines  A,  Fig.  295. 


Fig.  394 


Fig.  295 


242.  Haunching  is  a  device  by  which  the  tenon  proper  is 
supplemented  by  very  short  tenons,  or  "  haunches,"  as  indicated 
by  the  dotted  outline,  Fig.  296.  The  entire  end  of  the  tenon 
piece  is  thus  inserted  in  the  mortise  piece,  and  prevented  from 
warping ;  the  danger  of  its  splitting  from  shrinkage  is  not  in- 
creased. If  the  piece  shown  by  Fig.  294  were  haunched,  the 
imperfection  it  illustrates  would  be  removed. 

Fig.  396 


243.  Four  tenons  may  be  used  in  a  single  joint  when  the 
pieces  to  be  united  are  very  thick  and  wide,  Fig.  297.  By 
their  use  the  parts  are  made  small  enough  to  prevent  shrinkage 
from  producing  a  bad  joint. 


J52 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


244.  In  forming  a  joint  at  the  extremity  of  the  mortise  piece, 
a  single  tenon,  if  employed,  must  be  cut  away  at  one  side,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  298.  Such  a  joint  may  be  haunched,  Fig.  299, 
or  if  the  pieces  are  sufficiently  wide,  two  tenons  may  be  used, 
Fig.  213. 

.  308  Fig.  2QQ 


245.  Mortise-and- tenon  joints  in  joinery  are  capable  of  all 
the  modifications  of  form  which  they  are  made  to  assume  in 
carpentry.    They  may  be  housed,  for  example,  or  made  in  any 
of  the  oblique  forms. 

PANELING. 

246.  A  Panel  is  a  board,  or  a  combination  of  boards,  em- 
ployed to  fill  an  opening  within  a  frame.    Thus,  in  Fig.  300  the 
pieces  F  constitute  the  frame,  and  the  pieces  A,  B,  C,  and  D 
are  panels.    The  primary  purpose  of  this  arrangement  is  to 
give  an  extended  surface  of  wood   so   constructed   that   the 
pieces  of  which  it  is  made  shall  be  well  and  neatly  fastened, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  the  dimensions  and  the  general  appear- 
ance of  the  whole,  be  unaffected  by  shrinking  or  swelling.     To 
enhance  the  attractiveness  of  the  surface,  both  frame  and  panel 
are  frequently  embellished,  sometimes  so  richly  that  we  lose 
sight  of  the  mechanical  necessity  of  the  panel,  and  come  to 
regard  it  as  a  means  of  decoration. 

247.  The  Frame  taken  by  itself  is,  in  general,  made  up  of 
vertical  and  horizontal   pieces   united     by   mortise-and-tenon 
joints.    Vertical  pieces  extending  the  full  length  of  any  frame 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION. 
Kig.  300 


153 


154  BENCH  WORK  IN  WOOD. 

are  called  "stiles,"  and  horizontal  pieces,  "rails."  Each  of 
these  parts  should  be  as  narrow  as  is  consistent  with  the  degree 
of  strength  required.  The  width  of  a  rail  should  never  be  more 
than  twice  that  of  the  stile,  which,  as  a  rule,  should  not  exceed 
four  and  a  half  inches.  A  consideration  of  Fig.  300  will  show 
that,  although  the  door  is  three  or  more  feet  wide,  the  only  sur- 
faces whose  shrinkage  can  affect  the  width  are  the  two  4^-inch 
stiles.  Large  surfaces  are  covered,  not  by  increasing  the  size 
of  the  parts,  but  by  increasing  their  number. 

The  fillet  e  is  inserted  to  cover  the  end  of  the  tenons,  which 
would  otherwise  show  on  the  edge  of  the  door. 

248.  The  panel  may  be  either  fastened  to  the  back  of  the 
frame,  or  inserted  in  a  groove,  or  "  plow,"  made  in  the  frame 
to  receive  it.  In  either  case,  provision  must  be  made  for 
shrinking  and  swelling.  When  fastened  to  the  back,  screws 
are  usually  found  to  make  a  sufficiently  yielding  joint.  When 
fitted  into  the  frame,  no  fastening  is  needed  beyond  that  de- 
rived from  its  position.  It  must  fit  loosely  enough  to  draw  out 
on  shrinking,  but  not  so  loosely  as  to  rattle. 

In  Fig.  300,  A  is  a  plain  panel  screwed  to  the  back  of  the 
frame,  and  the  frame  about  it  is  stop-chamfered.  This  is,  prob- 
ably, the  simplest  combination  of  frame  and  panel.  In  com- 
mon with  all  panels  fastened  in  this  way,  it  is  best  adapted  to 
work  that  is  to  be  seen  from  one  side  only,  as  a  closet  door, 
or  the  permanent  lining  of  a  room. 

B  shows  a  plain  panel  fastened  to  the  back  of  a  frame  which 
is  ornamented  by  a  molding. 

C  differs  from  B  only  in  being  let  into  the  frame  instead  of 
being  screwed  to  the  back.  The  reverse  face  c  may  be  orna- 
mented by  a  molding  in  the  same  manner  as  C,  or  by  a 
chamfer. 

D  shows  a  raised  panel  embellished  by  a  rabbeted  molding. 
The  reverse  face  d  is  a  plain  raised  panel. 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION.  155 

A  panel  and  frame  may  be  plain  on  one  side  and  orna- 
mented on  the  other,  the  ornamentation  on  one  side  may  differ 
from  that  on  the  other,  or  the  sides  may  be  similar ;  and  any 
form  of  embellishment  that  may  properly  be  applied  to  board 
surfaces,  may  be  used  in  connection  with  this  work. 


FASTENINGS. 

249.  Pins  are  employed  principally  as  a  means  of  holding 
tenons  in  mortises.     In  carpentry  one  pin,  generally,  is  used  in 
each  joint,  its  diameter  varying  from  one-sixth  to  one-fourth  the 
width  of  the  tenon.     It  is  commonly  placed  at  a  distance  from 
the  abutting  cheeks  of   the   mortise,   equal  to  one-third  the 
length  of  the  tenon.     But  to  secure  the  maximum  strength  of 
the  joint,  its  exact  location  in  any  particular  case  must  be  fixed 
with  reference  to  the  character  of  the  material,  and  also  to  the 
relative  thickness  of  the  tenon  and  the  cheeks  of  the  mortise. 
In  joinery,  it  is  found  best  to  use  two  or  more  pins,  and,  what- 
ever the  proportions  of  the  joint  may  be,  these  rarely  exceed 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.     They  are  inserted  very 
near  the  abutting  cheeks  of  the  mortise,  so  that  that  part  of 
the  mortise  between  them  and  the  shoulder  of  the  tenon,  will 
not  shrink  enough  to  make  an  open  joint. 

Square  pins  are  better  than  round  ones,  but  the  latter  are 
more  easily  fitted  and,  therefore,  more  used. 
Drawboring  has  already  been  described  (168). 

250.  Wedges.  —  The  most  common  use  of  wedges  is  illus- 
trated by  Fig.  213  in  connection  with  Exercise  No.  14,  which 
requires  wedges  to  be  dipped  in  glue,  and  driven  between  the 
tenon  and  the  ends  of  the  mortise.     Wedges  are  also  driven 
in  saw  cuts  made  in  the  end  of  the  tenon  for  the  purpose  of 


56 


BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 


expanding  it,  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  301,  which  shows  at  A  a 
section  of  a  joint  before  the  wedges  are  driven,  and  at  B  a 
section  of  the  finished  joint.  The  saw  cut  should  extend 
somewhat  deeper  than  the  point  reached  by  the  wedge.  If 
the  tenon  is  broad,  or  if  a  considerable  increase  in  breadth  is 


Fig.  301 


Kig.  302 


required,  more  than  one  wedge  must  be  used.  When  there 
are  more  than  two,  a  large  one  should  be  inserted  in  the  center, 
and  smaller  ones  on  each  side,  as  shown  by  Fig.  302,  the 
wedges  ready  for  driving  at  A,  and  the  joint  finished  at  B. 

251.  Blind-wedging  is  sometimes  resorted  to  when  the 
mortise  does  not  extend  through  the  piece.  As  shown  by  Fig. 
303,  the  mortise  is  enlarged  at  the  bottom  and  the  wedges 
started  in ;  then,  as  the  pieces  are  driven  together,  the  ends  of 
the  wedges  strike  against  the  bottom  of  the  mortise  and  spread 
the  tenon.  When  driven,  the  tenon  cannot  be  withdrawn. 


252.  Keys  differ  from  wedges  in  respect  of  their  sides,  which 
are  parallel  or  nearly  so.  The  key  may  be  a  single  piece,  as 
shown  in  the  joint,  Fig.  197,  or,  what  is  better,  made  as  two 
wedges,  Fig.  304.  These  may  be  put  in  place  when  in  the 
relative  position  shown  by  A'B,  after  which,  by  driving  them 
upon  each  other,  as  indicated  by  A,  B,  the  joint  may  be  tight- 
ened. The  parallelism  of  the  outside  edges,  which  are  in 
contact  with  the  joint,  is  always  maintained. 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION.  157 

253.  Dowels  are  round  wooden  pins  of  small  diameter  used 
to  strengthen  a  joint.     They  should  ^>e  dipped  in  glue  and 
driven  at  a  tight  fit  into  holes  made  for  their  reception.     They 
may  be  carried  entirely  through  one  piece  and  into  the  other, 
Fig.  282,  or  inserted  as  shown  by  Fig.  279. 

Dowels  may  be  made  at  the  bench  by  the  plane,  or  they  may 
be  turned.  When  planed,  they  will  be  improved  in  section  if 
driven  through  a  round  hole  in  a  piece  of  iron  or  steei.  They 
are  supplied  by  the  trade,  of  all  ordinary  diameters,  and  in 
lengths  of  several  feet,  so  that  the  consumer  has  but  to  cut 
them  to  lengths  suited  to  his  purposes,  and  point  them. 

Shoe  pegs  serve  well  as  small  dowels.  After  being  dipped  in 
glue,  they  should  be  driven  in  brad-awl  holes. 

Whenever  fastenings  are  required  to  be  so  placed  that  sub- 
sequent operations  bring  the  cutting  tools  about  them,  dowels 
are  preferable  to  brads  or  nails,  since  they  may  be  planed  off 
without  injury  to  the  tool. 

254.  Nails  are  classified  according  to  the  process  by  which 
they  are  made  ;  the  material  used  ;  their  form  and  proportions ; 
and  the  use  for  which  they  are  intended.     Iron  and  steel  are 

the  most  common  materials,  but  when 

JTig.  17O 

305  these  would  be  destroyed  by  corrosion,  A  B 
copper  and  "galvanized  "  iron  are  used. 
The  forms  of  most  importance  to  the 
bench-worker,  may  be  classed  as  com- 
mon and  finishing  (or  casing)  nails. 
Their  comparative  proportions  are  illus- 
trated by  Figs.  170  and  305,  the  former 
representing  a  common,  and  the  latter 
a  finishing  nail.  It  is  evident  that  the 
greater  strength  of  the  common  nail 
makes  its  use  desirable  when  there  is  sufficient  material  to  re- 
ceive it  properly,  and  when  the  appearance  of  the  head  on 


158  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

the  surface  is  not  objectionable.  The  finishing  nail  may  be 
used  in  more  delicate  material,  and  makes  a  smaller  scar  on 
the  work. 

Cut  nails  are  so  called  because,  in  the  process  of  manufacture, 
each  nail  is  cut  from  a  plate  of  metal.  The  plate  has  a  width 
equal  to  the  length  of  the  nail,  and  a  thickness  equal  to  its 
breadth.  Generally  speaking,  all  nails  of  the  form  shown  by 
Figs.  1 70  and  305  are  cut. 

Wrought,  as  distinguished  from  cut  nails,  are  those  which 
without  breaking  will  bend  sufficiently  for  clinching.  As  the 
term  suggests,  such  nails  were  formerly  wrought  under  the 
hammer,  it  being  impossible  to  obtain  the  requisite  quality  by 
machinery ;  and  they  were  so  made  long  after  common  nails 
had  ceased  to  be  made  by  hand.  In  later  years,  however, 
wrought  nails  have  in  reality  been  cut,  but  from  better  material 
and  by  more  perfect  processes  than  those  which  have  been 
technically  called  cut  nails. 

Steel  cut  nails  are  now  generally  introduced  in  this  country, 
and  will  in  time  take  the  place  not  only  of  the  iron  cut,  but  also 
.  ace     of  the  s°-called  wrought  nails ;  for,  while  less  ex- 
pensive than  the  former,  they  are  equal  in  quality 
to  the  latter. 

Wire  nails,  Fig.  306,  are  at  this  time  coming 
into  general  use.     Their  strength  and  tenacity  are 
unequaled.     They  are  made  from  drawn  wire  in 
sizes  varying  from  that  of  the  smallest  brad   to 
that  of  the  largest  spike. 

255.  The  length  of  nails  is  indicated  by  numbers  prefixed 
to  the  word  "  penny,"  as  6-penny,  8-penny,  terms 1  which  are 

1  It  has  been  suggested  that  they  once  indicated  the  value  or  price  of  a 
given  number  of  nails,  6-penny  nails  being  sold  at  six  pence  per  hundred, 
and  8-penny  nails  for  eight  pence  per  hundred.  Another  explanation  is 
that  penny,  as  here  used,  is  a  corruption  of  pound,  6-penny  meaning  that 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION.  159 

now  used   arbitrarily,  though,  originally,  they  were  doubtless 
significant. 

The  length  of  nails  of  ordinary  sizes  is  given  as  follows  :  — 


A    3-penny  nail  is  one  inch  long. 

A    4-penny        "     one  and  one-fourth  inches  long. 

A    5-penny 

ne  and  three-fourths 

" 

A    6-penny        " 

wo 

"         " 

A    y-penny       " 

wo  and  one-fourth 

«         « 

An  8-penny        " 

wo  and  one-half 

"         " 

A  lo-penny        " 

wo  and  three-fourths 

<<         K 

A  12-penny        "     three 

"         " 

A  2O-penny        "     three  and  one-half 

" 

256.  Brads  are  small  finishing  nails,  in  form  similar  to  the 
nail  shown  by  Fig.  305,  the  smaller  ones  being  thicker,  and  the 
larger  ones  more  slender.     Their  size  is  expressed  in   inches 
and  fractions  of  an  inch,  and  ranges  from  one- fourth  of  an  inch 
to  two  inches. 

257.  Tacks  are  useless  for  fastening  pieces  of  wood  to  each 
other,  but  are  indispensable  when  lighter  material,  like  cloth  or 
leather,  is  to  be  fastened  to  wood.     They  vary  in  form  and  size 
with  the  particular  use  for  which  they  are  intended.     Their  size 
is  expressed  by  a  number  prefixed  to  the  word  "ounce."1    The 
length  of  the  more  common  sizes  varies  as  follows  :  — 

A    i-ounce  tack  is  three-sixteenths  of  nn  inch  long. 


A    2-ounce 

"    one-fourth               "         "        " 

A    3-ounce 

"    three-eighths          "         "        " 

A    4-ounce 

"    seven-sixteenths     "        "       " 

A    6-ounce 

"    one-half            ,     "         "       " 

An  8-ounce 

"    nine-sixteenths       "        "       " 

A  lo-ounce 

"     five-eighths             "         "        " 

a  thousand  nails  weighed  six  pounds;   8-penny,  that  a  thousand  weighed 
eight  pounds,  and  so  on. 

JThis  expression  may  have  once  represented  the  weight  of  1000  tacks; 
for  example,  1000  tacks  T3S"  long,  weighed  one  ounce,  and  were,  therefore, 
called  "  one-ounce  "  tacks. 


I6O  BENCH    WORK    IN    WOOD. 

258.  Common  Screws  are   either  bright  or  blued,  steel  or 
brass,  round-headed  or  flat-headed. 

Bright  screws  are  finished  by  polishing.  When  blued,  the 
luster  of  the  polish  has  been  taken  off  by  heat  or  an  acid,  and 
a  deep  blue  finish  produced.  Blued  screws  will  not  rust  so 
easily  as  bright  screws,  and  in  most  work  they  look  better  — 
considerations  which  apply  with  still  greater  force  to  the  use  of 
brass  as  a  material  instead  of  steel. 

Flat-headed  screws,  shown  by  Fig.  124,  are  the  most  com- 
mon. When  used  on  finished  surfaces,  the  heads  should  be 
sunk  below  the  general  level  and  the  hole  above  them  filled. 
When  this  is  not  convenient,  round  heads,  which  in  the  finished 
work  will  appear  above  the  surface,  are  frequently  employed. 

The  size  of  screws  is  indicated  by  their  length  in  inches  or 
fractions  of  an  inch,  and  by  the  diameter  of  the  wire  forming 
the  body ;  this  diameter  is  expressed  by  a  number  which  refers 
to  a  "  standard  screw  gauge."  The  sizes  of  the  screw  gauge 
range  from  No.  o,  which  represents  a  diameter  of  a  little  less 
than  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch,  to  No.  30,  which  represents  a 
diameter  somewhat  greater  than  seven-sixteenths  of  an  inch. 
The  size  of  a  screw  two  inches  long  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
in  diameter  would  be  written  2"  X  No.  15. 

259.  Glue  is  chiefly  of  two  kinds,  which  are  known  as  animal, 
and  fish  glue.     Animal  glue  is  a  product  obtained  from  the 
refuse  of  tanneries  (bone,  horn,  hoofs,  and  bits  of  hide),  which 
gives  up  the  glutinous  matter  it  contains  when  boiled  under 
pressure.    Fish  glue  is  extracted  from  the  spawn  and  entrails  of 
fish.     As  prepared  for  the  market,  both  are  generally  in  the 
form  of  cakes,  varying  in  thickness  from  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
to  very  thin  chips,  according  to  the  quality  and  character  of  the 
glue.     For  bench  work,  these  are  dissolved  in  water,  and  the 
mixture  applied  hot.    For  convenience  in  dissolving  the  glue,  a 
glue-pot  is  used,  which  is  an  arrangement  of  two  vessels,  one 


WOOD    CONSTRUCTION.  l6l 

within  another,  the  inner  being  for  glue,  the  outer  for  water. 
Heat  is  communicated  in  any  convenient  way  to  the  water,  and 
the  water  in  turn  heats  the  glue.  The  use  of  the  vessel  of 
water  is  to  prevent  the  glue  from  burning. 

Gluing.  —  When  ready  for  use,  the  glue  should  be  hot  and 
of  the  consistency  of  thin  sirup.  It  must  be  applied  with  a 
brush,  in  a  thin,  uniform  coating  to  both  surfaces  that  are  to 
be  joined.  Too  much  glue  will  prevent  the  pieces  from  coming 
together  in  the  joint.  The  application  should  be  made  as 
quickly  as  possible  because  the  glue  begins  to  cool  and  set  as 
soon  as  it  is  taken  from  the  pot;  it  will  set  less  quickly  if 
the  pieces  to  be  glued  are  warmed.  After  the  pieces  have 
been  put  together,  they  should  be  rubbed  to  squeeze  out  the 
surplus  glue,  and  finally  clamped  in  place  and  allowed  to  remain 
until  dry  —  at  least  twelve  hours. 

Liquid  glues  are  supplied  by  the  trade.  They  require  no 
heating  and  are,  therefore,  always  ready  for  use. 

When  end  grain  is  to  be  glued,  it  must  first  be  sized,  that  is, 
coated  with  thin  glue,  in  order  to  fill  the  pores  of  the  wood, 
and  allowed  to  dry  before  the  joint  is  made.  Otherwise,  the 
glue  that  is  put  into  the  joint  is  drawn  off  into  the  grain  and 
becomes  useless  as  a  fastening. 


CORRIGENDA. 


PAGE  18,  Article  30,  second  line  ;  instead  of  "square"  read  gauge  ; 
and  in  the  same  article,  instead  of  Fig.  40,  use  Fig.  40  A,  which  is  pre- 
sented herewith. 


-1-  _____  U 


PAGE  50,  second  line  ;  omit  "  as  Imk,  Fig.  146." 

PAGE  83,  last  line  of  first  paragraph;  instead  of  "  c  to  d"  read  c  to  a. 

PAGE  114,  Fig.  201  ;  instead  of  letters  "X"  read  Y,  and  instead  of 
the  letters  "Y"  read  X  ;  also  in  the  text,  eighth  line,  instead  of  "  F" 
read  X,  and  in  the  eleventh  line,  instead  of  "  X"  read  Y. 

PAGE  150,  Article  240,  sixth  line;  instead  of  "  two-thirds  "  read  one- 
half. 


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